Gender aspects of agricultural water management - Revision history

Friederike Kraemer: /* Women’s Roles in Water Management */

2014-10-22T12:07:47Z

‎Women’s Roles in Water Management

Friederike Kraemer: /* Women’s Roles in Water Management */

2014-10-22T12:05:35Z

‎Women’s Roles in Water Management

Friederike Kraemer: /* Women’s Roles in Water Management */

2014-10-22T11:59:09Z

‎Women’s Roles in Water Management

Irena Irmler at 10:46, 21 February 2014

2014-02-21T10:46:18Z

Irena Irmler at 13:24, 20 February 2014

2014-02-20T13:24:25Z

Irena Irmler at 13:17, 20 February 2014

2014-02-20T13:17:30Z

Show changes

Jana Herold: Jana Herold moved page Gender Aspects of Agricultural Water Management to Gender aspects of agricultural water management without leaving a redirect

2013-04-18T12:22:50Z

Jana Herold moved page Gender Aspects of Agricultural Water Management to Gender aspects of agricultural water management without leaving a redirect

Jana Herold: /* Policies and Flagship Publications on “Gender and AWM” */

2013-03-12T08:44:57Z

‎Policies and Flagship Publications on “Gender and AWM”

Jana Herold: /* Further literature and websites */

2013-02-19T08:47:23Z

‎Further literature and websites

Jana Herold: /* Land Tenure */

2013-02-19T07:54:23Z

‎Land Tenure

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 This focus on gender is reflected in various policy papers, action plans, strategies and guides, specific funds and the dedication of flagship publications (see <ref name="WB">World Bank (2011): World Development Report 2012. Gender Equality and Development.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf [2012-05-01]</ref><ref>World Bank (2006): Gender Action Plan Gender Equity as Smart Economics.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref>BMZ (2011): Gender Equality in Development Policy. Fact Sheets on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/topics/human_rights/Materialie210_Information_Brochure_03_2011.pdffckLR[2012-11-01]</ref><ref>BMZ (2009): Development Policy Action Plan on Gender 2009 – 2012. Empowering Women: Because one half of the world cannot survive without the other. – Empowering Women: Because one half of humankind cannot survive without the other.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/konzept185.pdf [2012-11-03]</ref><ref>GIZ (2012): Gender Strategy - Gender pays off.fckLRhttp://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz-gender-strategy-en-2012.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref name="FAO2011">FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development.fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf [2012-07-01]</ref>).
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 Even though women’s water-related reproductive duties, such as water collection, are very important, the current tendency of policy papers to overemphasize them at the detriment of productive duties is regrettable.<ref>UNEP: Women and the Environment. Chapter 5: Women and Water Management.fckLRhttp://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterFive.pdf [2013-01-09].</ref> Women’s involvement in AWM is part of these water-related productive duties.
-{{#widget:YouTube|id=Qfyx4UdlYFY|height=500|width=750}}
+{{#widget:YouTube|id=Qfyx4UdlYFY|height=500|width=750}} [http://www.thewaterchannel.tv/ http://www.thewaterchannel.tv/]

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:05, 22 October 2014
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	This focus on gender is reflected in various policy papers, action plans, strategies and guides, specific funds and the dedication of flagship publications (see <ref name="WB">World Bank (2011): World Development Report 2012. Gender Equality and Development.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf [2012-05-01]</ref><ref>World Bank (2006): Gender Action Plan Gender Equity as Smart Economics.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref>BMZ (2011): Gender Equality in Development Policy. Fact Sheets on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/topics/human_rights/Materialie210_Information_Brochure_03_2011.pdffckLR[2012-11-01]</ref><ref>BMZ (2009): Development Policy Action Plan on Gender 2009 – 2012. Empowering Women: Because one half of the world cannot survive without the other. – Empowering Women: Because one half of humankind cannot survive without the other.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/konzept185.pdf [2012-11-03]</ref><ref>GIZ (2012): Gender Strategy - Gender pays off.fckLRhttp://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz-gender-strategy-en-2012.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref name="FAO2011">FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development.fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf [2012-07-01]</ref>).		This focus on gender is reflected in various policy papers, action plans, strategies and guides, specific funds and the dedication of flagship publications (see <ref name="WB">World Bank (2011): World Development Report 2012. Gender Equality and Development.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf [2012-05-01]</ref><ref>World Bank (2006): Gender Action Plan Gender Equity as Smart Economics.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref>BMZ (2011): Gender Equality in Development Policy. Fact Sheets on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/topics/human_rights/Materialie210_Information_Brochure_03_2011.pdffckLR[2012-11-01]</ref><ref>BMZ (2009): Development Policy Action Plan on Gender 2009 – 2012. Empowering Women: Because one half of the world cannot survive without the other. – Empowering Women: Because one half of humankind cannot survive without the other.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/konzept185.pdf [2012-11-03]</ref><ref>GIZ (2012): Gender Strategy - Gender pays off.fckLRhttp://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz-gender-strategy-en-2012.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref name="FAO2011">FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development.fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf [2012-07-01]</ref>).
		+

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 This focus on gender is reflected in various policy papers, action plans, strategies and guides, specific funds and the dedication of flagship publications (see <ref name="WB">World Bank (2011): World Development Report 2012. Gender Equality and Development.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf [2012-05-01]</ref><ref>World Bank (2006): Gender Action Plan Gender Equity as Smart Economics.fckLRhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref>BMZ (2011): Gender Equality in Development Policy. Fact Sheets on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/topics/human_rights/Materialie210_Information_Brochure_03_2011.pdffckLR[2012-11-01]</ref><ref>BMZ (2009): Development Policy Action Plan on Gender 2009 – 2012. Empowering Women: Because one half of the world cannot survive without the other. – Empowering Women: Because one half of humankind cannot survive without the other.fckLRhttp://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/konzept185.pdf [2012-11-03]</ref><ref>GIZ (2012): Gender Strategy - Gender pays off.fckLRhttp://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz-gender-strategy-en-2012.pdf [2012-11-06]</ref><ref name="FAO2011">FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development.fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf [2012-07-01]</ref>).
 == Women’s Roles in Water Management ==
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 Even though women’s water-related reproductive duties, such as water collection, are very important, the current tendency of policy papers to overemphasize them at the detriment of productive duties is regrettable.<ref>UNEP: Women and the Environment. Chapter 5: Women and Water Management.fckLRhttp://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterFive.pdf [2013-01-09].</ref> Women’s involvement in AWM is part of these water-related productive duties.
 == Gender and AWM ==

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 For female headed households, women’s control of income is generally greater.
 == Land Tenure ==
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 The fact that water rights are strongly linked to land rights, which in certain areas tend to discriminate against women, exacerbates this situation. Specifics depend on the context, as local power relations, status and bargaining power of women in household and community might all play a role. Furthermore, water for agricultural purposes is accessed from a variety of sources, such as wells, rivers, canals, drainage water, lakes, rainwater harvesting, etc. Due to local norms and perceptions ruling gender appropriate behaviour, certain sources might be more easily accessible for women than others. For example, in areas where irrigation is perceived as a male task, it might be easier for women to use wells as a source of water for kitchen garden irrigation than to be granted a water turn from the irrigation canal. Also, in certain areas of South Asia, e.g. Nepal, fixed water schedules have been found to improve fair water distribution as they decrease the need for constant re-bargaining.<ref name="Zwarteveen1995">Zwarteveen, M. (1995): Linking Women to the Main Canal. Gender and Irrigation Management. IEED Gatekeeper Series No. 54. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf [2012-11-06].</ref> In areas where water institutions such as WUA are active, water distribution is often closely linked to access and participation in these organisations. In cases where women’s access to these institutions is restricted, their share of water might also be affected.
-However, even in male dominated cultural contexts, there are a variety of avenues – some of them informal - women use to access agricultural water: e.g. they have male relatives or neighbours represent them at local water meetings (e.g. seen in Sri Lanka);<ref name="Zwarteveen1995">Zwarteveen, M. (1995): Linking Women to the Main Canal. Gender and Irrigation Management. IEED Gatekeeper Series No. 54. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf [2012-11-06].</ref> they “steal” water from the canal if not allocated any (e.g. documented in Nepal);<ref name="Zwarteveen2006">Zwarteveen, M. (2006): Wedlock or deadlock? Feminists’ Attempts to Engage Irrigation Engineers. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen University. http://edepot.wur.nl/121803 [2013-01-21].</ref> they irrigate at night to avoid social stigma; or they increase their bargaining power by acting as a group instead of single individuals.<ref>Cleaver, F (1998): Incentives and informal institutions: Gender and the management of water. In: Agriculture and Human Values, 15, pp. 347-360. </ref>
+However, even in male dominated cultural contexts, there are a variety of avenues – some of them informal - women use to access agricultural water: e.g. they have male relatives or neighbours represent them at local water meetings (e.g. seen in Sri Lanka);<ref name="Zwarteveen1995">Zwarteveen, M. (1995): Linking Women to the Main Canal. Gender and Irrigation Management. IEED Gatekeeper Series No. 54. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf [2012-11-06].</ref> they “steal” water from the canal if not [[Water_Development_and_Allocation|allocated]] any (e.g. documented in Nepal);<ref name="Zwarteveen2006">Zwarteveen, M. (2006): Wedlock or deadlock? Feminists’ Attempts to Engage Irrigation Engineers. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen University. http://edepot.wur.nl/121803 [2013-01-21].</ref> they irrigate at night to avoid social stigma; or they increase their bargaining power by acting as a group instead of single individuals.<ref>Cleaver, F (1998): Incentives and informal institutions: Gender and the management of water. In: Agriculture and Human Values, 15, pp. 347-360. </ref>
 == Time and Labour Factors ==
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 </div>
 [[Category:Excellent]]

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 <div>
-“Gender and Agricultural Water Management (AWM)” is a cross-cutting approach that considers gendered constraints and impacts in AWM. In the last few decades, recognising the importance of [[Water_Governance_and_Women|gender]] has become one of the most important concepts of international development cooperation. However, agriculture and AWM are lagging behind, as the crucial contribution of women to agricultural production in developing countries has only in recent years been acknowledged on a broader scale. With women forming on average 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries, (ranging from 20% in Latin America to 50% in Africa)<ref name="FAO2011">FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development. fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf[2012-07-01]</ref>, their role and inclusion in agricultural water management has been identified as one of the most crucial challenges in reaching global food and water security. Secondly and equally important, the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women is a goal in itself. The consideration of gender needs and preferences in AWM allows women to fulfil their potential, to act upon their rights and obligations more effectively, and to raise their (personal) production and income, among others. Consequently, women’s status and decision-making power in household and society is improved.
+“Gender and Agricultural Water Management (AWM)” is a cross-cutting approach that considers gendered constraints and impacts in AWM. In the last few decades, recognising the importance of [[Water Governance and Women|gender]] has become one of the most important concepts of international development cooperation. However, agriculture and AWM are lagging behind, as the crucial contribution of women to agricultural production in developing countries has only in recent years been acknowledged on a broader scale. With women forming on average 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries, (ranging from 20% in Latin America to 50% in Africa)<ref name="FAO2011">FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development. fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf[2012-07-01]</ref>, their role and inclusion in agricultural water management has been identified as one of the most crucial challenges in reaching global food and water security. Secondly and equally important, the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women is a goal in itself. The consideration of gender needs and preferences in AWM allows women to fulfil their potential, to act upon their rights and obligations more effectively, and to raise their (personal) production and income, among others. Consequently, women’s status and decision-making power in household and society is improved.
 = Background =
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 </div>
 [[Category:Enabling_Environment]]

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 http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf [2012-11-07].</ref> In Sub-Saharan Africa, where separate “women” plots are common in many societies,<ref name="IWMI2002">IWMI/ Van Koppen, B. (2002): A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation. Concept, Tools and Applications. Research Report 59.
 http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf [2012-11-07].</ref> women normally grow different crops or crop types on their parcels than men, which usually have different water needs than “men’s crops”. Women might also need water to irrigate their kitchen garden and water livestock. The latter is particularly common in South Asia.<ref name="Hussain2007">Hussain, I. (2007): Understanding Gender and Diversity Dimensions of Irrigation Management for Pro-Poor Interventions. In: Irrigation and Drainage, 56, pp. 299-305.</ref> Also, in many rural areas of the developing world, agricultural water, e.g. from canals, is used for (female) domestic tasks such as washing, cooking, etc.
 == Policies and Flagship Publications on “Gender and AWM” ==
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 After decades of relative insensitivity to gendered aspects of AWM, there have recently been a number of publications specifically covering this topic. Three of them are particularly noteworthy:
-The World Bank, together with FAO and IFAD, published "Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook"15, which contains a separate chapter on Gender and AWM. Key challenges identified are gendered land and water rights; labour contribution to irrigated farms; decision-making at farm level; participation in water user organisations; and access of poor men and women to irrigation benefits and domestic/other uses of water. Special emphasis is put on multiple-use water services, as well as specific challenges regarding ground water management.
+The World Bank, together with FAO and IFAD, published "Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook", which contains a separate chapter on Gender and AWM. Key challenges identified are gendered land and water rights; labour contribution to irrigated farms; decision-making at farm level; participation in water user organisations; and access of poor men and women to irrigation benefits and domestic/other uses of water. Special emphasis is put on multiple-use water services, as well as specific challenges regarding ground water management.
-The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has issued the publication “Gender Checklist: Agriculture”.<ref>Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2006): Gender Checklist. Agriculture.
+Finally, there is the FAO “Passport to Mainstreaming Gender in Water Programmes: Key Questions for Interventions in the Agricultural Sector”.<ref>FAO (2012): Passport to Mainstreaming Gender in Water Programmes. Key Questions for Interventions in the Agricultural Sector.fckLRhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap089e/ap089e00.pdf [2012-06-11].</ref> This provides a detailed set of questions that should be raised by development professionals before and while implementing AWM projects. Key dimensions and sub-aspects are raised, including often neglected areas such as intra-household decision-making power, the role of construction and maintenance work, differentiation between women and control of income.
-http://www.adb.org/publications/gender-checklist-agriculture [2012-11-01].</ref> In its section on irrigated agriculture, the Bank focuses on gendered water uses and irrigation needs; gendered impact of increased production and changing cropping patterns induced by irrigation; involvement and participation in water management including Water User Associations; and capacities of the executing agencies.
 == Relation to Food Security and Climate Change ==

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 <references />
-[http://www.adb.org/publications/gender-checklist-agriculture http://www.adb.org/publications/gender-checklist-agriculture] [2012-11-01].
+= Additional information =
-−
-BMZ (2009): Development Policy Action Plan on Gender 2009 – 2012. Empowering Women: Because one half of the world cannot survive without the other. – Empowering Women: Because one half of humankind cannot survive without the other.
-−
-[http://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/konzept185.pdf http://www.bmz.de/en/publications/type_of_publication/strategies/konzept185.pdf] [2012-11-03].
-−
-BMZ (2011): Gender Equality in Development Policy. Fact Sheets on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation.
-−
-[http://www.bmz.de/en/publications/topics/human_rights/Materialie210_Information_Brochure_03_2011.pdf http://www.bmz.de/en/publications/topics/human_rights/Materialie210_Information_Brochure_03_2011.pdf] [2012-11-01].
-−
-FAO (1997): Gender: the Key to Sustainability and Food security. SD Dimensions.
-−
-[http://www.fao.org/sd/WPdirect/WPdoe001.htm http://www.fao.org/sd/WPdirect/WPdoe001.htm] [2012-08-20].
-−
-FAO/ Rathgeber, E. (2003): Dry Taps…Gender and Poverty in Water Resource Management.
-−
-[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/AC855E/AC855E00.pdf ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/AC855E/AC855E00.pdf] [2012-06-01].
-−
-FAO/Djiré, M. (2006): Improving Tenure Security for the Rural Poor: Mali Country Case Study. LEP Working Paper 4, Workshop for Sub-Saharan Africa.
-−
-[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/k0785e/k0785e00.pdf ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/k0785e/k0785e00.pdf] [2012-05-10].
-−
-FAO (2011): The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development.
-−
-[http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf] [2012-07-01].
-−
-FAO/ Fletschner, D. and Kenney, L. (2011): Rural Women’s Access to Financial Services: Credit, Savings and Insurance. ESA Working Paper No. 11-07. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am312e/am312e00.pdf http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am312e/am312e00.pdf] [2012-06-11].
-−
-FAO (2012): Passport to Mainstreaming Gender in Water Programmes. Key Questions for Interventions in the Agricultural Sector. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap089e/ap089e00.pdf http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap089e/ap089e00.pdf] [2012-06-11].
-−
-FAO: Gender. Why Gender. [http://www.fao.org/gender/gender-home/gender-why/why-gender/en/ http://www.fao.org/gender/gender-home/gender-why/why-gender/en/] [2012-11-07].
-−
-GIZ (2012): Gender Strategy - Gender pays off.
-−
-[http://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz-gender-strategy-en-2012.pdf http://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz-gender-strategy-en-2012.pdf] [2012-11-06].
 [[Women and Water Management in Egypt|GTZ/ Radwan, H. (2010): Women and Water Management in Egypt. An Empirical Study.]]
-IFPRI/ Knox, A. and Meinzen-Dick, R.S. (2001): Collective actions, property rights, and devolution of natural resource management: Exchange of knowledge and implications for policy. CAPRi Working Paper No. 11. [http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/capriwp11.pdf http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/capriwp11.pdf] [2013-01-21].
+[[Category:Enabling_Environment]]
+[[Category:Articles]]
-IWMI/ Van Koppen, B. (2002): A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation. Concept, Tools and Applications. Research Report 59. [http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf] [2012-11-07].
-−
-UNEP: Women and the Environment. Chapter 5: Women and Water Management. [http://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterFive.pdf http://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterFive.pdf] [2013-01-09].
-−
-World Bank (2006): Gender Action Plan Gender Equity as Smart Economics. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf] [2012-11-06].
-−
-World Bank (2011): World Development Report 2012. Gender Equality and Development. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf] [2012-05-01].
-−
-World Bank: Gender and Development. A Trainer’s Manual.
-−
-[http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/192862/introductorymaterials/Glossary.html http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/192862/introductorymaterials/Glossary.html] [2012-11-06].
-−
-World Bank, FAO, IFAD (2009): Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENAGRLIVSOUBOOK/Resources/CompleteBook.pdf http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENAGRLIVSOUBOOK/Resources/CompleteBook.pdf] [2012-11-06].
-−
-Zwarteveen, M. (1995): Linking Women to the Main Canal. Gender and Irrigation Management. IEED Gatekeeper Series No. 54. [http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf] [2012-11-06].
-−
-Zwarteveen, M. (2006): Wedlock or deadlock? Feminists’ Attempts to Engage Irrigation Engineers. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen University. [http://edepot.wur.nl/121803 http://edepot.wur.nl/121803] [2013-01-21].
-−
 [[Category:Approaches]]

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 For female headed households, women’s control of income is generally greater.
 == Land Tenure ==
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 Paying attention to the gendered dimension of land tenure is a further crucial factor. This includes an assessment of the existing land tenure system, the basis of plot allocation in the case of (new) irrigation schemes, as well as the type of land rights conferred by AWM projects.
-Regarding the existing land tenure system, it is critical to identify (female) land rights and ensure that planned activities do not change the situation for the worse. This has happened in various irrigation projects in the past, particularly in West Africa, where in some cases the introduction of irrigated cultures led to the disappropriation of women: i.e. “their” land was taken away from them to create irrigation parcels to be used by male farmers or as communal plots, the output of which the women would often not control.<ref name="IWMI2002">IWMI/ Van Koppen, B. (2002): A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation. Concept, Tools and Applications. Research Report 59.
+Regarding the existing land tenure system, it is critical to identify (female) land rights and ensure that planned activities do not change the situation for the worse. This has happened in various irrigation projects in the past, particularly in West Africa, where in some cases the introduction of irrigated cultures led to the disappropriation of women: i.e. “their” land was taken away from them to create irrigation parcels to be used by male farmers or as communal plots, the output of which the women would often not control.<ref name="IWMI2002">IWMI/ Van Koppen, B. (2002): A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation. Concept, Tools and Applications. Research Report 59.fckLRhttp://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf [2012-11-07].</ref><ref name="Zwarteveen1995">Zwarteveen, M. (1995): Linking Women to the Main Canal. Gender and Irrigation Management. IEED Gatekeeper Series No. 54. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf [2012-11-06].</ref>
-http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf [2012-11-07].</ref><ref name="Zwarteveen1995">Zwarteveen, M. (1995): Linking Women to the Main Canal. Gender and Irrigation Management. IEED Gatekeeper Series No. 54. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/6068IIED.pdf [2012-11-06].</ref>
-In cases where plots are assigned, the selection might be based on previous tenure of land, any work or capital contributed towards the construction of the scheme, priority to household heads, the working capacity of a household, among others.<ref>Cotula, L. (2008): The Property Rights Challenges of Improving Access to Water for Agriculture. Lessons from the Sahel. In: Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 9 (1), pp. 5-22.</ref> The suitability of what works best from a gender perspective strongly depends on existing land tenure patterns and the local situation. For example, allocation of irrigation plots on the basis of construction work might be discriminating in a context where such work is not socially acceptable for women; or where certain women might not have sufficient time available due to reproductive duties; or where not all women have male relatives or sufficient financial capital to substitute for their own labour. The allocation of plots normally goes hand in hand with the conferral of certain rights for these plots. These range from full-fledged Western-style ownership titles via a registration of customary rights to a system based on customary institutions and rights. What works best in terms of gender is controversial. (For current arguments, please consult <ref>Agarwal, B. (2003): Gender and Land Rights revisited. Exploring New Prospects via the State, Family and Market. In: Journal of Agrarian Change, 3 (1-2), pp. 184-224.</ref><ref>FAO/Djiré, M. (2006): Improving Tenure Security for the Rural Poor: Mali Country Case Study. LEP Working Paper 4, Workshop for Sub-Saharan Africa.fckLRftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/k0785e/k0785e00.pdf [2012-05-10].</ref><ref>Jackson, C. (2003): Gender Analysis of Land: Beyond Land Rights for Women. In: Journal of Agrarian Change, 3 (4), pp. 453-480.</ref><ref>Toulmin, C. (2008): Securing Land and Property Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Local Institutions. In: Land Use Policy, 26, pp. 10-19.</ref><ref>Whitehead, A. and Tsikata, D. (2003): Policy Discourses on Women´s Land Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Implications of the Re-Turn to the Customary. In: Journal of Agrarian Change 3 (1-2), pp. 67-112.</ref>)Customary law, for example, often discriminates against women, in some cases even banning female land ownership. However, this is not always the case; for instance, in some areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, women have customary rights to their own land parcels, often closely linked to the institution of marriage.<ref name="IWMI2002">IWMI/ Van Koppen, B. (2002): A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation. Concept, Tools and Applications. Research Report 59.
+In cases where plots are assigned, the selection might be based on previous tenure of land, any work or capital contributed towards the construction of the scheme, priority to household heads, the working capacity of a household, among others.<ref>Cotula, L. (2008): The Property Rights Challenges of Improving Access to Water for Agriculture. Lessons from the Sahel. In: Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 9 (1), pp. 5-22.</ref> The suitability of what works best from a gender perspective strongly depends on existing land tenure patterns and the local situation. For example, allocation of irrigation plots on the basis of construction work might be discriminating in a context where such work is not socially acceptable for women; or where certain women might not have sufficient time available due to reproductive duties; or where not all women have male relatives or sufficient financial capital to substitute for their own labour. The allocation of plots normally goes hand in hand with the conferral of certain rights for these plots. These range from full-fledged Western-style ownership titles via a registration of customary rights to a system based on customary institutions and rights. What works best in terms of gender is controversial. (For current arguments, please consult <ref>Agarwal, B. (2003): Gender and Land Rights revisited. Exploring New Prospects via the State, Family and Market. In: Journal of Agrarian Change, 3 (1-2), pp. 184-224.</ref><ref>FAO/Djiré, M. (2006): Improving Tenure Security for the Rural Poor: Mali Country Case Study. LEP Working Paper 4, Workshop for Sub-Saharan Africa.
-http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf [2012-11-07].</ref>
+ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/k0785e/k0785e00.pdf [2012-05-10].</ref><ref>Jackson, C. (2003): Gender Analysis of Land: Beyond Land Rights for Women. In: Journal of Agrarian Change, 3 (4), pp. 453-480.</ref><ref>Toulmin, C. (2008): Securing Land and Property Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Local Institutions. In: Land Use Policy, 26, pp. 10-19.</ref><ref>Whitehead, A. and Tsikata, D. (2003): Policy Discourses on Women´s Land Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Implications of the Re-Turn to the Customary. In: Journal of Agrarian Change 3 (1-2), pp. 67-112.</ref>)Customary law, for example, often discriminates against women, in some cases even banning female land ownership. However, this is not always the case; for instance, in some areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, women have customary rights to their own land parcels, often closely linked to the institution of marriage.<ref name="IWMI2002">IWMI/ Van Koppen, B. (2002): A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation. Concept, Tools and Applications. Research Report 59.fckLRhttp://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub059/Report59.pdf [2012-11-07].</ref>
 The problems raised in the remaining sections mainly relate to irrigation.
 == Water Rights and Water Distribution ==