Rainwater harvesting - Revision history

Avinash Kumar at 12:31, 16 August 2016

2016-08-16T12:31:58Z

Kevin Smith at 10:16, 30 October 2014

2014-10-30T10:16:45Z

Kevin Smith: /* Examples of rainwater harvesting measures */

2014-10-30T10:04:47Z

‎Examples of rainwater harvesting measures

Stefanie Ettling: Stefanie Ettling moved page Water harvesting to Rainwater harvesting

2014-10-15T06:15:01Z

Stefanie Ettling moved page Water harvesting to Rainwater harvesting

Irena Irmler at 10:45, 20 February 2014

2014-02-20T10:45:57Z

Christoph Wagener at 12:17, 22 November 2013

2013-11-22T12:17:25Z

Christoph Wagener at 13:51, 6 November 2013

2013-11-06T13:51:59Z

Christoph Wagener at 13:18, 8 August 2013

2013-08-08T13:18:40Z

Jana Herold: Jana Herold moved page Water Harvesting to Water harvesting without leaving a redirect

2013-04-17T09:26:43Z

Jana Herold moved page Water Harvesting to Water harvesting without leaving a redirect

Nikhil Kotecha: /* Benefits of rainwater harvesting systems */

2013-03-25T13:34:25Z

‎Benefits of rainwater harvesting systems

@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 [[File:Rainwater harvesting systems.jpg|border|center|265px|Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water|alt=Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4024 [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 1: Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4024 [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
 [[File:Rainwater harvesting classification ICARDA 2001.jpg|center|227px|Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA|alt=Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 2: Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 2: Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
 = In situ rainwater harvesting =
 In situ rainwater harvesting systems are based on changing soil and water management techniques, with the aim to improve infiltration, water holding capacity and fertility of the soil, and to counter soil erosion. Via various types of barriers, rainwater runoff in sloping fields can be captured in the field and stored in the soil for immediate use by the crop. Capture and storage areas are within a small distance. Rainwater harvesting is basically about enhancing the water intake at
 *the soil surface (infiltration through diverting surface runoff)
 *the rooting zone (water uptake by plants)
@@ Line 28: / Line 29: @@
 [[File:Semi-circular bund with description in Sahel 2012 Wegner.jpg|center|222px|In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)|alt=In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 3: In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 3: In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)</p>
 == Ex situ rainwater harvesting ==
@@ Line 34: / Line 35: @@
 [[File:Ex situ rainwater harvesting atajado in Bolivia.png|center|247px|Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)|alt=Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
 == Overview of rainwater harvesting technologies ==
@@ Line 98: / Line 99: @@
 [[File:Atajado in Potosie with catchment area 2010.jpg|center|259px|Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).|alt=Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 5: Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 5: Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).</p>
 <br/>Video in Spanish on atajados in Bolivia:
@@ Line 104: / Line 105: @@
 <u>For further information on Atajados see:</u>
 *[http://proagro-bolivia.org/ http://proagro-bolivia.org/]
 *GIZ/Goetter, J. (2010a): Adaptación al Cambio Climático: Cosecha de Agua de Lluvia con “Atajados” en Bolivia, Lima, Peru. [http://www.riesgoycambioclimatico.org/documentos/ACC_con_CA.pdf http://www.riesgoycambioclimatico.org/documentos/ACC_con_CA.pdf] [Access 2012-10-08]
@@ Line 112: / Line 114: @@
 In the southern part of Zambia, the climate is semi-arid / sub-humid with an average rainfall of 700 mm/a. The medium fertile soils are cultivated mainly by poor small-scale farmers with an average land size per household of 2 ha. In order to collect runoff from upstream areas, small earthen dams are constructed (Figure 6). The wall of the dam is compacted for stabilization, the embankment is planted with Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) to prevent erosion, and a fence is built around the dam to stop livestock from entering. Typically, the dam is 50-100 m (length) by 4-8 m (depth) in size, holds a capacity of 50,000 to 100,000 m³, and has a spillway for excess water. The collected water is used for livestock, domestic consumption and irrigation.<br/>The local community is involved in the planning and construction process, and is supported technically and financially by a government agency for the planning, construction and management of the dam. The maintenance of the dam, e.g. (re-)planting of grass on the dam, is conducted by the community, as well as soil and water conservation management of the catchment area. High labour input and well trained technical advisors are required for the construction of the dam, followed by low to medium maintenance requirements.<br/>[[File:Small earth dams Zambia 2011.jpg|center|269px|Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action|alt=Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 6: Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 6: Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref></p>
 Due to these dams and the increased water availability, the small-scale farmers obtain an increased crop yield and animal production, resulting in improved income and food security. In addition, the shallow aquifer can be recharged, and the impact of extreme flooding events can be reduced. The communities are strengthened in their institutional capacities through communal action in planning, construction and maintenance.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref>
@@ Line 163: / Line 165: @@
 [http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/home http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/home] - Pioneering Sand Dams
-[[Category:Excellent]]
+__noeditsection__
 [[Category:Technologies]]

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 = Background =
-Rainwater harvesting refers to a wide range of different techniques for accumulation, storage and provision of rainwater. Uses of collected water include provision of drinking water, water for livestock and irrigation, diversion of run-off water for infiltration in water scarce cropping areas, and refill of aquifers (groundwater recharge).<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref> Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice, and has been developed in areas where rainfall is not sufficient to support crop production or is too variable to guarantee a harvest, or where drinking water sources are scarce. Around 80% of crop land worldwide is rainfed. Nowadays, water resources in [[Dryland_farming|dry areas]] are under even more pressure due to population growth, environmental degradation and climate change.<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref><br/>Climate change refers to the increased occurrence of droughts and varying rainfall patterns. Rainwater harvesting can be used as a low cost adaptation mechanism at the farm level for increasing soil moisture, reducing soil temperature, and recharging groundwater and other water resources. Around a third of the African continent has the potential for rainwater harvesting; in the past few years, many programmes have been launched for promoting such measures throughout Africa.<ref name="afdb">AfDB (2012): African Water Facility Grant Helps Kenyan Pastoralists Build Resilience to Droughts, Climate Change. Press release 09/08/2012. http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/african-water-facility-grant-helps-kenyan-pastoralists-build-resilience-to-droughts-climate-change-9597/ [Access 2012-10-08]</ref>
+Rainwater harvesting refers to a wide range of different techniques for accumulation, storage and provision of rainwater. Uses of collected water include provision of drinking water, water for livestock and irrigation, diversion of run-off water for infiltration in water scarce cropping areas, and refill of aquifers (groundwater recharge).<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref> Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice, and has been developed in areas where rainfall is not sufficient to support crop production or is too variable to guarantee a harvest, or where drinking water sources are scarce. Around 80% of crop land worldwide is rainfed. Nowadays, water resources in [[Dryland farming|dry areas]] are under even more pressure due to population growth, environmental degradation and climate change.<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref><br/>Climate change refers to the increased occurrence of droughts and varying rainfall patterns. Rainwater harvesting can be used as a low cost adaptation mechanism at the farm level for increasing soil moisture, reducing soil temperature, and recharging groundwater and other water resources. Around a third of the African continent has the potential for rainwater harvesting; in the past few years, many programmes have been launched for promoting such measures throughout Africa.<ref name="afdb">AfDB (2012): African Water Facility Grant Helps Kenyan Pastoralists Build Resilience to Droughts, Climate Change. Press release 09/08/2012. http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/african-water-facility-grant-helps-kenyan-pastoralists-build-resilience-to-droughts-climate-change-9597/ [Access 2012-10-08]</ref>
 ----
@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 [[File:Rainwater harvesting systems.jpg|border|center|265px|Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water|alt=Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water]]
-<p style="text-align: center">Figure 1: Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4024 [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4024 [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
 [[File:Rainwater harvesting classification ICARDA 2001.jpg|center|227px|Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA|alt=Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA]]
-<p style="text-align: center">Figure 2: Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 2: Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
 = In situ rainwater harvesting =
@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 [[File:Semi-circular bund with description in Sahel 2012 Wegner.jpg|center|222px|In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)|alt=In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)]]
-<p style="text-align: center">Figure 3: In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 3: In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)</p>
 == Ex situ rainwater harvesting ==
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 [[File:Ex situ rainwater harvesting atajado in Bolivia.png|center|247px|Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)|alt=Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)]]
-<p style="text-align: center">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
 == Overview of rainwater harvesting technologies ==
@@ Line 89: / Line 89: @@
 <br/>
 = Examples of rainwater harvesting measures =
 == Atajados in Bolivia ==
@@ Line 122: / Line 117: @@
 <br/>For further information see: FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm] [Access 2012-11-10]
 = References =

@@ Line 88: / Line 88: @@
 <br/>
 = Examples of rainwater harvesting measures =
 == Atajados in Bolivia ==
@@ Line 96: / Line 103: @@
 [[File:Atajado in Potosie with catchment area 2010.jpg|center|259px|Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).|alt=Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).]]
-<p style="text-align: center">Figure 5: Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 5: Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).</p>
 <br/>Video in Spanish on atajados in Bolivia:
@@ Line 110: / Line 117: @@
 In the southern part of Zambia, the climate is semi-arid / sub-humid with an average rainfall of 700 mm/a. The medium fertile soils are cultivated mainly by poor small-scale farmers with an average land size per household of 2 ha. In order to collect runoff from upstream areas, small earthen dams are constructed (Figure 6). The wall of the dam is compacted for stabilization, the embankment is planted with Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) to prevent erosion, and a fence is built around the dam to stop livestock from entering. Typically, the dam is 50-100 m (length) by 4-8 m (depth) in size, holds a capacity of 50,000 to 100,000 m³, and has a spillway for excess water. The collected water is used for livestock, domestic consumption and irrigation.<br/>The local community is involved in the planning and construction process, and is supported technically and financially by a government agency for the planning, construction and management of the dam. The maintenance of the dam, e.g. (re-)planting of grass on the dam, is conducted by the community, as well as soil and water conservation management of the catchment area. High labour input and well trained technical advisors are required for the construction of the dam, followed by low to medium maintenance requirements.<br/>[[File:Small earth dams Zambia 2011.jpg|center|269px|Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action|alt=Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action]]
-<p style="text-align: center">Figure 6: Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 6: Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref></p>
 Due to these dams and the increased water availability, the small-scale farmers obtain an increased crop yield and animal production, resulting in improved income and food security. In addition, the shallow aquifer can be recharged, and the impact of extreme flooding events can be reduced. The communities are strengthened in their institutional capacities through communal action in planning, construction and maintenance.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref>
 <br/>For further information see: FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm] [Access 2012-11-10]
 = References =

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 = Background =
-Rainwater harvesting refers to a wide range of different techniques for accumulation, storage and provision of rainwater. Uses of collected water include provision of drinking water, water for livestock and irrigation, diversion of run-off water for infiltration in water scarce cropping areas, and refill of aquifers (groundwater recharge).<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref> Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice, and has been developed in areas where rainfall is not sufficient to support crop production or is too variable to guarantee a harvest, or where drinking water sources are scarce. Around 80% of crop land worldwide is rainfed. Nowadays, water resources in dry areas are under even more pressure due to population growth, environmental degradation and climate change.<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref><br/>Climate change refers to the increased occurrence of droughts and varying rainfall patterns. Rainwater harvesting can be used as a low cost adaptation mechanism at the farm level for increasing soil moisture, reducing soil temperature, and recharging groundwater and other water resources. Around a third of the African continent has the potential for rainwater harvesting; in the past few years, many programmes have been launched for promoting such measures throughout Africa.<ref name="afdb">AfDB (2012): African Water Facility Grant Helps Kenyan Pastoralists Build Resilience to Droughts, Climate Change. Press release 09/08/2012. http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/african-water-facility-grant-helps-kenyan-pastoralists-build-resilience-to-droughts-climate-change-9597/ [Access 2012-10-08]</ref>
+Rainwater harvesting refers to a wide range of different techniques for accumulation, storage and provision of rainwater. Uses of collected water include provision of drinking water, water for livestock and irrigation, diversion of run-off water for infiltration in water scarce cropping areas, and refill of aquifers (groundwater recharge).<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref> Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice, and has been developed in areas where rainfall is not sufficient to support crop production or is too variable to guarantee a harvest, or where drinking water sources are scarce. Around 80% of crop land worldwide is rainfed. Nowadays, water resources in [[Dryland_farming|dry areas]] are under even more pressure due to population growth, environmental degradation and climate change.<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref><br/>Climate change refers to the increased occurrence of droughts and varying rainfall patterns. Rainwater harvesting can be used as a low cost adaptation mechanism at the farm level for increasing soil moisture, reducing soil temperature, and recharging groundwater and other water resources. Around a third of the African continent has the potential for rainwater harvesting; in the past few years, many programmes have been launched for promoting such measures throughout Africa.<ref name="afdb">AfDB (2012): African Water Facility Grant Helps Kenyan Pastoralists Build Resilience to Droughts, Climate Change. Press release 09/08/2012. http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/african-water-facility-grant-helps-kenyan-pastoralists-build-resilience-to-droughts-climate-change-9597/ [Access 2012-10-08]</ref>
 ----
@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 [[File:Rainwater harvesting systems.jpg|border|center|265px|Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water|alt=Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4024 [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 1: Rainwater harvesting systems, mode of storage and use of water<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4024 [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
 [[File:Rainwater harvesting classification ICARDA 2001.jpg|center|227px|Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA|alt=Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 2: Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 2: Classification of rainwater harvesting systems by ICARDA<ref name="ICARDA">ICARDA/Oweis, T., Prinz, D. & Hachum, A. (2001): Water Harvesting Indigenous Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. http://temp.icarda.org/wli/pdfs/Books/Water_harvest_En.pdf [Access 2012-11-18]</ref></p>
 = In situ rainwater harvesting =
@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 [[File:Semi-circular bund with description in Sahel 2012 Wegner.jpg|center|222px|In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)|alt=In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 3: In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 3: In situ rainwater harvesting with semi-circular bunds in Sahel. Water is captured behind the earthen embankment (Photo: Wegener, M.)</p>
 == Ex situ rainwater harvesting ==
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 [[File:Ex situ rainwater harvesting atajado in Bolivia.png|center|247px|Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)|alt=Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
 == Overview of rainwater harvesting technologies ==
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 [[File:Atajado in Potosie with catchment area 2010.jpg|center|259px|Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).|alt=Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 5: Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 5: Atajados in Potosí District collecting water from an upstream catchment area (Photo: Edmundo Navia).</p>
 <br/>Video in Spanish on atajados in Bolivia:
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 In the southern part of Zambia, the climate is semi-arid / sub-humid with an average rainfall of 700 mm/a. The medium fertile soils are cultivated mainly by poor small-scale farmers with an average land size per household of 2 ha. In order to collect runoff from upstream areas, small earthen dams are constructed (Figure 6). The wall of the dam is compacted for stabilization, the embankment is planted with Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) to prevent erosion, and a fence is built around the dam to stop livestock from entering. Typically, the dam is 50-100 m (length) by 4-8 m (depth) in size, holds a capacity of 50,000 to 100,000 m³, and has a spillway for excess water. The collected water is used for livestock, domestic consumption and irrigation.<br/>The local community is involved in the planning and construction process, and is supported technically and financially by a government agency for the planning, construction and management of the dam. The maintenance of the dam, e.g. (re-)planting of grass on the dam, is conducted by the community, as well as soil and water conservation management of the catchment area. High labour input and well trained technical advisors are required for the construction of the dam, followed by low to medium maintenance requirements.<br/>[[File:Small earth dams Zambia 2011.jpg|center|269px|Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action|alt=Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action]]
-<p style="text-align: center;">Figure 6: Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref></p>
+<p style="text-align: center">Figure 6: Construction of a small earth dam in Zambia with communal action.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref></p>
 Due to these dams and the increased water availability, the small-scale farmers obtain an increased crop yield and animal production, resulting in improved income and food security. In addition, the shallow aquifer can be recharged, and the impact of extreme flooding events can be reduced. The communities are strengthened in their institutional capacities through communal action in planning, construction and maintenance.<ref name="FAO11">FAO/Liniger, H., Studer, R. M., Hauert, C. & Gurtner, M. (2011): Sustainable Land Management in practice. Prepared by WOCAT. A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.htm [Access 2012-11-10]</ref>
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 ZEF/Nasr, M. (1999): Assessing Desertification and Water Harvesting in the Middle East and North Africa: Policy Implications: ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy Number. Bonn [http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp10-99.pdf http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp10-99.pdf] [Access 2012-10-08]
+<br/>
 [http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/home http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/home] - Pioneering Sand Dams

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	ZEF/Nasr, M. (1999): Assessing Desertification and Water Harvesting in the Middle East and North Africa: Policy Implications: ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy Number. Bonn [http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp10-99.pdf http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp10-99.pdf] [Access 2012-10-08]		ZEF/Nasr, M. (1999): Assessing Desertification and Water Harvesting in the Middle East and North Africa: Policy Implications: ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy Number. Bonn [http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp10-99.pdf http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp10-99.pdf] [Access 2012-10-08]
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		+	[http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/home http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/home] - Pioneering Sand Dams

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 [[File:Ex situ rainwater harvesting atajado in Bolivia.png|center|247px|Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)|alt=Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)]]
 <p style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Ex situ rainwater harvesting with small-scale water reservoir (atajado) in the Bolivian Andes with sedimentation basin at the inlet (Photo: Picht, H.J.)</p>
 == Overview of rainwater harvesting technologies ==
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 = Benefits of rainwater harvesting systems =
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 = Limitations and challenges of rainwater harvesting systems =
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 It is essential to identify and assess potential obstacles before implementing a system. The most appropriate solution, adapted to local circumstances, has to be identified in each situation. This should include assessment of the watershed and its ecological conditions: i.e. rainfall, evaporation, topography, soil properties, soil degradation, and vegetation cover. Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems can be used for locating suitable areas. Furthermore, land use and land ownership have to be taken into account, as well as suitable technology and storage medium. To be successful, sustainable and replicable, measures must be technically and physically feasible, of low cost, and have economic benefit for farmers. Especially as some systems are high-maintenance, it is important that rainwater harvesting options are made attractive for farmers themselves to invest in these technologies.
 = Examples of rainwater harvesting measures =
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 <references />
 = Additional Information =
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 Malesu, M, Oduor, A.R., Odhiambo, O.J. eds. (2008): Green water management handbook: rainwater harvesting for agricultural production and ecological sustainability Nairobi, Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre ICRAF.
 [[Guideline on Irrigation Agronomy|Natural Resources Management Directorate/Natural Resource Sector/Ministry of Agriculture Ethiopia/GIZ (2011): Guideline on irrigation acronomy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.]]

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