Water and ecosystems - Revision history

Avinash Kumar at 09:16, 27 May 2016

2016-05-27T09:16:28Z

Irena Irmler at 20:00, 19 February 2014

2014-02-19T20:00:07Z

Nikhil Kotecha: /* References and further reading */

2013-03-26T09:42:08Z

‎References and further reading

Irena Irmler at 15:16, 19 March 2013

2013-03-19T15:16:07Z

Jana Herold at 14:27, 11 February 2013

2013-02-11T14:27:49Z

Jana Herold: /* Why preserve ecosystems and how? */

2013-02-11T14:27:08Z

‎Why preserve ecosystems and how?

Jana Herold: /* Why preserve ecosystems and how? */

2013-02-11T14:26:47Z

‎Why preserve ecosystems and how?

Jana Herold at 08:00, 8 February 2013

2013-02-08T08:00:51Z

Jana Herold at 07:59, 8 February 2013

2013-02-08T07:59:56Z

Jana Herold at 16:31, 7 February 2013

2013-02-07T16:31:34Z

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 An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>
-Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and [[Riverbed_farming|river ecosystems]], as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.
+Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and [[Riverbed farming|river ecosystems]], as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.
 = Background =
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 While scientists and environmentalists have discussed the value of ecosystems and ecosystem services for decades, these services were formalized by the United Nations 2005 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]/ MEA, which is a four-year study involving more than 1300 scientists worldwide. The authors grouped ecosystem services into four broad categories:
 *''provisioning'', such as the production of food and water;
 *''regulating'', such as the control of climate and disease;
@@ Line 73: / Line 74: @@
 '''On the global level:''' To date, several international agreements for the conservation of ecosystems and on the maintenance of biodiversity have been adopted. Biodiversity is a crucial pillar for sustainable develoment.<ref>Falkenmark, M. and V. Galaz. Agriculture, Water and Ecosystems. Swedish Water House Policy Brief Nr. 6. SIWI, 2007.</ref> The currently most discussed international treaty focusing on ecosystems is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention. The Convention has three main goals:
 #conservation of ecosystems, species and genetic diversity within species
 #sustainable use of its components
@@ Line 104: / Line 106: @@
 This project is being implemented on behalf of Germany’s Federal Environmental Ministry (BMU) and aims to support the development and implementation of adaptation strategies that compensate for the effects of climate change and the loss of biodiversity in selected areas of the Philippines. The project provides an approach for ecosystem-based adaptation through the following components:
 *Institutional support: GIZ is supporting the IACCC in technical and administrative matters, especially upgrading its Secretariat into a Climate Change Office
 *Policies and Strategies: The project has helped to formulate the Philippine Strategy on Climate Change Adaptation by fostering a multi-stakeholder and participatory collabo-ration process amongst key government agencies, academia and civil society.
@@ Line 190: / Line 193: @@
 [http://www.siwi.org/publications http://www.siwi.org/publications]
 [[Category:Excellent]]

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 An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>
-Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and river ecosystems, as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.
+Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and [[Riverbed_farming|river ecosystems]], as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.
 = Background =
@@ Line 110: / Line 110: @@
 Source: [mailto:Climate@giz.de Climate@giz.de] Innovative Approaches - Broad Experience - Clear Impacts
 = References and further reading =
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 [http://www.siwi.org/publications http://www.siwi.org/publications]

@@ Line 109: / Line 109: @@
 Source: [mailto:Climate@giz.de Climate@giz.de] Innovative Approaches - Broad Experience - Clear Impacts
 = References and further reading =
@@ Line 126: / Line 127: @@
 FAO (2010): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture.
-FAO (2011): The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: [http://www.fao.org/AG/agp/agps/Pgrfa/pdf/overvi_e.pdf http://www.fao.org/AG/agp/agps/Pgrfa/pdf/overvi_e.pdf]
+FAO (2011): The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: [http://www.fao.org/nr/water/docs/SOLAW_EX_SUMM_WEB_EN.pdf http://www.fao.org/nr/water/docs/SOLAW_EX_SUMM_WEB_EN.pdf]
 GCP/ Global Canopy Programme: The Little Biodiversity Finance Book.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows (Tansley, 1934; Smith & SMith 2012, p.G-5, Odum, 1971).<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>
+An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>
 Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and river ecosystems, as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.
@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 == The nature and value of ecosystems ==
-The components of an ecosystem are connected through interrelations and have their own regulatory capacity. An example is the assimilative capacity of aquatic ecosystems, through which lakes or rivers are able to return to their original state, such as after a poisonous incident. According to the type, strength and duration of the external interference, the ecosystem can change completely; sometimes new ecosystems develop, harboring a specific but different living organism community. This is seen in particular in agro-ecosystems, which can develop from natural bush or grasslands through constant grazing or regular swath. Although these agro-ecosystems can be highly bio diverse and unique in its character, the natural ecosystem has disappeared.
+The components of an ecosystem are connected through interrelations and have their own regulatory capacity. An example is the assimilative capacity of aquatic ecosystems, through which lakes or rivers are able to return to their original state, such as after a poisonous incident. According to the type, strength and duration of the external interference, the ecosystem can change completely; sometimes new ecosystems develop, harboring a specific but different living organism community. This is seen in particular in agro-ecosystems, which can develop from natural bush or grasslands through constant grazing or regular swath. Although these agro-ecosystems can be highly bio diverse and unique in its character, the natural ecosystem has disappeared. It is necessary to not only value their role for agricultural activity but also to gently manage these agro-ecosystems.<ref name="SIWI">Falkenmark, M. and V. Galaz. Agriculture, Water and Ecosystems. Swedish Water House Policy Brief Nr. 6. SIWI, 2007.</ref>
 Similar types of habitats are not simply interchangeable, since individual ecosystems are existing which are extremely rich in species and can accommodate hundreds of endemic species, such as Lake Tanganyika in central Africa. Since the decline of such ecosystems can be associated with the extinction of hundreds of life forms, their protection is extremely important. Such highly diverse ecosystems still exist, especially in developing countries. While these systems often are locally of low benefit, globally they are of great significance due to their high biodiversity. The maintenance of the ecosystem by the developing country should be compensated by the industrialized countries.
@@ Line 20: / Line 20: @@
 [[File:Conversion of Terrestrial Biomes.png|thumb|180px|Figure 1: Conversion of Terrestrial Biomes, MEA 2005]]The most important reasons for the degradation of terrestrial ecosystems are physical changes and land-use change to agriculture. According to MEA (2005)<ref name="MEA 2005">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment/ MEA (2005): Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. World Resources Institute</ref> [1], the rate of conversion of ecosystems has recently begun to slow down. This is largely due to the fact that in temperate zones the major potential of land is already used and hence further conversions cannot take place at the same rates as before.
-The ecosystems and biomes that have been most significantly altered globally by human activity include marine and freshwater ecosystems, temperate broadleaf forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean forests, and tropical dry forests. Freshwater ecosystems have been diminished most radically through the withdrawal of water for irrigation and other uses. The construction of dams and other structures along rivers affect flows in 60% of the large river systems in the world. Water removal for human uses has reduced the flow of many rivers to the extent that they dry up before reaching the sea. As water flows have declined, so have sediment flows which are the source of nutrients important for the maintenance of estuaries. Worldwide, although human activities have increased sediment flows in rivers by about 20%, reservoirs and water diversions prevent about 30% of sediments from reaching the oceans, resulting in a net reduction of roughly 10% of sediment delivery to estuaries. Marine systems are also highly affected by overuse: the world’s demand for food and animal feed over the last 50 years has resulted in fishing pressure so strong that the biomass of both targeted species and those caught as “by catch” has been reduced in much of the world to one-tenth of the levels prior to the onset of industrial fishing (MEA, 2005).<ref name="MEA 2005">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment/ MEA (2005): Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. World Resources Institute</ref>
+The ecosystems and biomes that have been most significantly altered globally by human activity include marine and freshwater ecosystems, temperate broadleaf forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean forests, and tropical dry forests. Freshwater ecosystems have been diminished most radically through the withdrawal of water for irrigation and other uses. The construction of dams and other structures along rivers affect flows in 60% of the large river systems in the world. Furthermore, agricultural crop production impacts on stream flows and groundwater resources.<ref>Falkenmark, M. and V. Galaz. Agriculture, Water and Ecosystems. Swedish Water House Policy Brief Nr. 6. SIWI, 2007.</ref> Water removal for human uses has reduced the flow of many rivers to the extent that they dry up before reaching the sea. As water flows have declined, so have sediment flows which are the source of nutrients important for the maintenance of estuaries. Worldwide, although human activities have increased sediment flows in rivers by about 20%, reservoirs and water diversions prevent about 30% of sediments from reaching the oceans, resulting in a net reduction of roughly 10% of sediment delivery to estuaries. Marine systems are also highly affected by overuse: the world’s demand for food and animal feed over the last 50 years has resulted in fishing pressure so strong that the biomass of both targeted species and those caught as “by catch” has been reduced in much of the world to one-tenth of the levels prior to the onset of industrial fishing (MEA, 2005).<ref name="MEA 2005">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment/ MEA (2005): Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. World Resources Institute</ref>
 [[File:Living Planet Index for tropical and temperate zones.png|thumb|180px|Figure 2: Living Planet Index for tropical and temperate zones, WWF 2012]]The '''Living Planet Index (LPI) '''[2] summarizes the state and trends in biodiversity. In total, the LPI declined by almost 30% between 1970 and 2008, with large differences between tropical and temperate zones. Whereas for tropical zones the index declined by 60%, for temperate zones it increased by 31% during the same period. However, these figures must be interpreted against the extensive historical losses prior to 1970 in temperate zones (see Figure 2). Globally, the terrestrial, freshwater and marine indices all declined, with the freshwater index declining globally at 37%, whereas the tropical freshwater index declined even more precipitously, by 70%. Marine ecosystems exhibit the largest discrepancy between tropical and temperate species: the tropical marine index shows a decline of around 60% between 1970 and 2008, while the temperate marine index increased by around 50%. There is evidence that temperate marine and coastal species experienced massive long-term declines over the past few centuries; therefore the temperate marine index started from a much lower baseline in 1970 than the tropical index. The relative increase in temperate marine populations since then is likely a reflection of a slight recovery from historic lows.
@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 [[File:Linkages between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being.png|thumb|left|180px|Figure 4: Linkages between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being, MEA 2005]]
-<br/>
+According to the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), water can be a useful starting point when implementing ecosystem management measures.<ref>Falkenmark, M. and V. Galaz. Agriculture, Water and Ecosystems. Swedish Water House Policy Brief Nr. 6. SIWI, 2007.</ref>
-−
-<br/>
 = Targets and Approaches =
@@ Line 74: / Line 72: @@
 In order to slow down ecosystem degradation, it is necessary to act in a multidimensional and multisectoral manner on the global, national, sub-national and local level, using complementary strategies and measures.
-'''On the global level:''' To date, several international agreements for the conservation of ecosystems and on the maintenance of biodiversity have been adopted. The currently most discussed international treaty focusing on ecosystems is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention. The Convention has three main goals:
+'''On the global level:''' To date, several international agreements for the conservation of ecosystems and on the maintenance of biodiversity have been adopted. Biodiversity is a crucial pillar for sustainable develoment.<ref>Falkenmark, M. and V. Galaz. Agriculture, Water and Ecosystems. Swedish Water House Policy Brief Nr. 6. SIWI, 2007.</ref> The currently most discussed international treaty focusing on ecosystems is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention. The Convention has three main goals:
 #conservation of ecosystems, species and genetic diversity within species
 #sustainable use of its components

@@ Line 53: / Line 53: @@
 As well as gradual changes, extreme weather events cause ecosystem transitions, increase transport of nutrients and pollutants to downstream ecosystems, and overwhelm the ability of natural systems to mitigate harm to people from these events. More intense storms and increased drought coupled with warming can shift grasslands into shrub lands, or facilitate domination by other grass types. A rise in heavy rainfall also increases movement of nutrients and pollutants to downstream ecosystems, thus restructuring processes, biota, and habitats. As a consequence, regulation of drinking water quality is very likely to be strained as high rainfall and river discharge lead to higher levels of nitrogen in rivers and greater risk of waterborne disease outbreaks. Also, these changes will have direct impacts on the food security of local communities (see Staudinger et al. 2012). The ecosystem services provided by coastal habitats are especially vulnerable to sea-level rise and more severe storms. Coastal protection services provided by wetlands and coral reefs will be lost. Along the coasts, erosion of dunes due to increasing wave heights is projected to be an increasing problem for coastal communities. Climate change responses employed by other sectors (e.g. energy, agriculture, transportation) are creating new ecosystem stresses, but also can incorporate ecosystem-based approaches to improve their efficacy (Staudinger et al. 2012).
 == Why preserve ecosystems and how? ==
@@ Line 63: / Line 61: @@
 *''supporting'', such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination;
 *''cultural'', such as spiritual and recreational benefits
 Figure 4 shows the ecosystem services with their constituents of well-being for human kind.
@@ Line 72: / Line 68: @@
 <br/>
 = Targets and Approaches =

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:00, 8 February 2013
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−	An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows ~~8Tansley~~, 1934; Smith & SMith 2012, p.G-5, Odum, 1971).<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>	+	An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows (Tansley, 1934; Smith & SMith 2012, p.G-5, Odum, 1971).<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>

	Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and river ecosystems, as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.		Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and river ecosystems, as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>
+An ecosystem is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology) Community (ecology)] of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the abiotic components [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_component Abiotic component] of their environment (air, water, soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows 8Tansley, 1934; Smith & SMith 2012, p.G-5, Odum, 1971).<ref name="Tansley">Tansley, AG (1935): The use and abuse of vegetation terms and concepts; Ecology 16 (3): 284–307.</ref><ref name="Smith">Smith, T.- M.; R.-L. Smith (2012). Elements of Ecology. Boston, Benjamin Cum-mings, ISBN 978-0-321-73607-9.</ref><ref name="Odum">Odum, EP (1971): Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York</ref>
 Water and its qualities are main components of almost all ecosystems. Differentiation is made between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; the existence of terrestrial ecosystems is indirectly or directly often dependent on the state of neighboring aquatic ecosystems. For instance, many terrestrial bird species have their breeding areas at lake shores. Wetlands, mangrove forests, coastal zones, and river ecosystems, as well as deserts, forests and plains, are just a selection of the existing types of ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are being threatened by human activities such as agriculture and fisheries, and increasingly disturbed and influenced by climate change. Hence, a bundle of measures are necessary to work effectively against their continuous and rapid degradation.
@@ Line 42: / Line 42: @@
 [3] Safe Yield: The annual amount of [http://en.mimi.hu/environment/water.html water] that can be taken from a source of supply over a period of years without depleting that source beyond its ability to be replenished naturally in "wet years." [http://www.polytechnic.edu.na/academics/schools/engine infotech/civil/libraries/glossarywaterenvironment/GlossaryWaterEnvironment-26.htm http://www.polytechnic.edu.na/academics/schools/engine infotech/civil/libraries/.]
 </div></div>
 == Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and food security ==

@@ Line 13: / Line 13: @@
 While ecological science evaluates the value of an ecosystem mainly according to its biodiversity, singularity, and the degree of human intervention, economic science focusses on the benefits or ecological services people obtain from it. These benefits include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious, and other nonmaterial benefits ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment Millennium Ecosystem Assessment], 2005: 39).<ref name="MEA 2005">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment/ MEA (2005): Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. World Resources Institute </ref>
 == The degradation of ecosystems ==
@@ Line 59: / Line 55: @@
 As well as gradual changes, extreme weather events cause ecosystem transitions, increase transport of nutrients and pollutants to downstream ecosystems, and overwhelm the ability of natural systems to mitigate harm to people from these events. More intense storms and increased drought coupled with warming can shift grasslands into shrub lands, or facilitate domination by other grass types. A rise in heavy rainfall also increases movement of nutrients and pollutants to downstream ecosystems, thus restructuring processes, biota, and habitats. As a consequence, regulation of drinking water quality is very likely to be strained as high rainfall and river discharge lead to higher levels of nitrogen in rivers and greater risk of waterborne disease outbreaks. Also, these changes will have direct impacts on the food security of local communities (see Staudinger et al. 2012). The ecosystem services provided by coastal habitats are especially vulnerable to sea-level rise and more severe storms. Coastal protection services provided by wetlands and coral reefs will be lost. Along the coasts, erosion of dunes due to increasing wave heights is projected to be an increasing problem for coastal communities. Climate change responses employed by other sectors (e.g. energy, agriculture, transportation) are creating new ecosystem stresses, but also can incorporate ecosystem-based approaches to improve their efficacy (Staudinger et al. 2012).
 == Why preserve ecosystems and how? ==
@@ Line 95: / Line 87: @@
 German government promotes projects aimed at the maintenance of ecosystems at all levels. On the global level, the implementation of the Rio Conventions is supported. Concurrently, the German Development Cooperation is also engaged in the agricultural sector to promote sustainable management methods on the sub-national and local level, as shown by the following examples.
-= '''Project example on the global level''' =
+== Project example on the global level ==
-Implementing the Biodiversity Convention (BIODIV) <br/>On behalf of the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), GIZ is executing a variety of bilateral projects for the conservation of biodiversity. In 1994, a special nationwide project "Implementing the Biodiversity Convention" (BIODIV) was established. This is an integrated approach to support the accelerated implementation of the Convention. Concepts of sustainable use of biological resources are to be developed and designed, and a favorable political environment shall be encouraged. BIODIV is based on two pillars:<br/>1) More than 20 pilot projects of governmental and non-governmental agencies are supported in order to implement specific measures for biodiversity conservation. The experience gained from these projects shall improve the general conditions.<br/>2) BIODIV also contributes to the development of the Convention and its instruments and entities. This includes the support at the international negotiation and consultation process, participation in national and international biodiversity relevant committees and panels, as well as the realization of events and workshops and the preparation of conceptual contributions to the design of the convention.<br/>Source: BMZ / GTZ brochure 2004: Biodiversity in German Development Cooperation
+'''Implementing the Biodiversity Convention (BIODIV)'''<br/>On behalf of the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), GIZ is executing a variety of bilateral projects for the conservation of biodiversity. In 1994, a special nationwide project "Implementing the Biodiversity Convention" (BIODIV) was established. This is an integrated approach to support the accelerated implementation of the Convention. Concepts of sustainable use of biological resources are to be developed and designed, and a favorable political environment shall be encouraged. BIODIV is based on two pillars:<br/>1) More than 20 pilot projects of governmental and non-governmental agencies are supported in order to implement specific measures for biodiversity conservation. The experience gained from these projects shall improve the general conditions.<br/>2) BIODIV also contributes to the development of the Convention and its instruments and entities. This includes the support at the international negotiation and consultation process, participation in national and international biodiversity relevant committees and panels, as well as the realization of events and workshops and the preparation of conceptual contributions to the design of the convention.<br/>Source: BMZ / GTZ brochure 2004: Biodiversity in German Development Cooperation
-== '''Project example on national levels''' ==
+== Project example on national levels ==
 '''Protection of Agrobiodiversity in Rural Area (AGROBIODIV)'''
@@ Line 109: / Line 101: @@
 == Project example on the sub-national and local level ==
-Adaptation to Climate Change and Conservation of Biodiversity in the Philippines (ACCBio)
+'''Adaptation to Climate Change and Conservation of Biodiversity in the Philippines (ACCBio)'''
 This project is being implemented on behalf of Germany’s Federal Environmental Ministry (BMU) and aims to support the development and implementation of adaptation strategies that compensate for the effects of climate change and the loss of biodiversity in selected areas of the Philippines. The project provides an approach for ecosystem-based adaptation through the following components:
@@ Line 138: / Line 130: @@
 GCP/ Global Canopy Programme: The Little Biodiversity Finance Book.
-[[GIZ/Petermann,_Th._(1993):_Irrigation_and_the_Environment|GIZ/ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, Petermann, T. (1993): Irrigation and the Environment. A review of environmental issues.]]
+[[GIZ/Petermann, Th. (1993): Irrigation and the Environment|GIZ/ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, Petermann, T. (1993): Irrigation and the Environment. A review of environmental issues.]]
 GIZ (2008) Themenblätter: People, Food and Biodiversity. Der Erhalt landwirtschaftlicher Vielfalt und seine Finanzierung.