Watershed management - Revision history

Avinash Kumar at 09:03, 5 August 2016

2016-08-05T09:03:38Z

Avinash Kumar at 08:51, 5 August 2016

2016-08-05T08:51:27Z

Avinash Kumar at 07:42, 25 May 2016

2016-05-25T07:42:55Z

Stefanie Ettling: /* Background */

2014-10-15T10:17:50Z

‎Background

Stefanie Ettling at 10:14, 15 October 2014

2014-10-15T10:14:02Z

Christoph Wagener at 14:10, 24 September 2013

2013-09-24T14:10:24Z

Christoph Wagener at 13:59, 24 September 2013

2013-09-24T13:59:31Z

Christoph Wagener: /* Additional Information */

2013-09-06T12:13:11Z

‎Additional Information

Nikhil Kotecha: /* Additional Information */

2013-03-25T13:32:32Z

‎Additional Information

Nikhil Kotecha: /* Historical development and approaches of watershed management */

2013-03-25T13:31:49Z

‎Historical development and approaches of watershed management

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 Around 10% of the population worldwide lives in mountainous upstream watershed areas, and around 40% in lowland parts.<ref name="FAO unknown">FAO (unknown): Participatory Watershed Management. Fact sheet. http://www.fao.org/sd/ruralradio/common/ecg/24516_en_factsheet7_1.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref> Water is necessary by ecosystems, as well as for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes. In order to achieve a sustainable, integrated and just water management, a watershed is used as the decisive planning unit. A watershed can exist within the boundaries of a country, but can also be [[Transboundary water management|transboundary]]. UNEP defines watershed management and development as “the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of the natural (land, water, plants, and animals) and human habitat within a shared ecosystem (geological, hydrological-aquatic and ecological) located within a common drainage system”.<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org</ref> The biggest challenges for sustainable watershed management are to achieve justice between competing users through participatory processes; maintain or improve ecosystem services; and secure socio-economic development to improve livelihoods.<ref name="IMWI 2005">IMWI / Sharma, R.B., Samra, J.S., Scott, C.A. et.al. (2005): Watershed Management Challenges: Improving Productivity, Resources and Livelihoods. International Water Management Institute. New Delhi, India. http://www.intranet.icrisat.org/gtaes/downloads/Publication%20CD%20Ver%204.0/ECD/ebooks/92-9090.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref>
 = Background =
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 = Historical development and approaches of watershed management =
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 Most development programs concentrate on the micro level, e.g. sub-catchments, when addressing location specific problems, and as well tackle macro level related problems. A prob-lem is that often the scope of many planning institutions does not coincide with watershed boundaries. Furthermore, work at the micro scale often cannot deal intensively with the up-stream and downstream linkages <ref name="Thapa 2005">Thapa, G. R. (2005): Integrated Watershed Management: Basic concepts and. UNESCO – EOLSS sample chapters Human settlement development, Vol. II. http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C14/E1-18-04-05.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref> which are important to ensure long-term impacts.<br/>When creating upstream-downstream linkages, water availability and water quality have to be analysed in both watershed areas, as well as the impacts of different land uses, such as agricultural land use, grazing, fishery and forestry, mining, industrialization and urbanization. On one hand, impacts depend on physical factors like topography, soil properties and climate; on the other hand, factors like economic ability, awareness and participation of the stakeholders, and infrastructures are also important.<ref name="FAO 2000">FAO / Kiersch, B. (2000): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y3618e/y3618e07.htm [Access 2012-12-03].</ref> Instruments for upstream-downstream linkages include:
 *Regulatory instruments
 *Economic instruments (subsidies, taxes, land use rights)
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 Around 10% of the population worldwide lives in mountainous upstream watershed areas, and around 40% in lowland parts.<ref name="FAO unknown">FAO (unknown): Participatory Watershed Management. Fact sheet. http://www.fao.org/sd/ruralradio/common/ecg/24516_en_factsheet7_1.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref> Water is necessary by ecosystems, as well as for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes. In order to achieve a sustainable, integrated and just water management, a watershed is used as the decisive planning unit. A watershed can exist within the boundaries of a country, but can also be [[Transboundary water management|transboundary]]. UNEP defines watershed management and development as “the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of the natural (land, water, plants, and animals) and human habitat within a shared ecosystem (geological, hydrological-aquatic and ecological) located within a common drainage system”.<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org</ref> The biggest challenges for sustainable watershed management are to achieve justice between competing users through participatory processes; maintain or improve ecosystem services; and secure socio-economic development to improve livelihoods.<ref name="IMWI 2005">IMWI / Sharma, R.B., Samra, J.S., Scott, C.A. et.al. (2005): Watershed Management Challenges: Improving Productivity, Resources and Livelihoods. International Water Management Institute. New Delhi, India. http://www.intranet.icrisat.org/gtaes/downloads/Publication%20CD%20Ver%204.0/ECD/ebooks/92-9090.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref>
 = Background =
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 Figure 2: The hydrological cycle in a watershed. Precipitation is the main source of water: it flows through surface and groundwater bodies out of the watershed or is evaporated from surfaces and transpirated by plants (source: [http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Hy-La/Hydrologic-Cycle.html http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Hy-La/Hydrologic-Cycle.html]).
-In general, changes through land use alterations in the upstream areas affect lowlands and pose a challenge to equitable water distribution between different users. For example, floods can have positive impacts on downstream agricultural land through depositing nutrient rich sediments. This is limited if upstream constructed reservoirs for irrigation results in sedimen-tation in this structures. In areas with large irrigation schemes upstream, reduced water quantities in rivers can have negative effects in the downstream area.<ref name="Thapa 2005">Thapa, G. R. (2005): Integrated Watershed Management: Basic concepts and. UNESCO – EOLSS sample chapters Human settlement development, Vol. II. http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C14/E1-18-04-05.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref> There-fore, conflicts can arise between different sectors and users, especially among farmers.<br/>Land use and water quantity and quality conditions in a watershed are affected by climate change and the increasing variability of extreme weather events. After or during extreme rainfall events, especially after a period of drought, eroded sediments and pollutants are transported downstream. In many mountain regions quicker melting glaciers and perennial snow fields alters downstream flows and reduces freshwater resources. In other areas, in-creasing temperatures lead to changes in the vegetation cover and reduced water availability which affects the crop harvest and [[Definition and Dimensions|food security]] negatively.
+In general, changes through land use alterations in the upstream areas affect lowlands and pose a challenge to equitable water distribution between different users. For example, floods can have positive impacts on downstream agricultural land through depositing nutrient rich sediments. This is limited if upstream constructed reservoirs for irrigation results in sedimen-tation in this structures. In areas with large irrigation schemes upstream, reduced water quantities in rivers can have negative effects in the downstream area.<ref name="Thapa 2005">Thapa, G. R. (2005): Integrated Watershed Management: Basic concepts and. UNESCO – EOLSS sample chapters Human settlement development, Vol. II. http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C14/E1-18-04-05.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref> There-fore, conflicts can arise between different sectors and users, especially among farmers.<br/>Land use and water quantity and quality conditions in a watershed are affected by climate change and the increasing variability of extreme weather events. After or during extreme rainfall events, especially after a period of drought, eroded sediments and pollutants are transported downstream. In many mountain regions quicker melting glaciers and perennial snow fields alters downstream flows and reduces freshwater resources. In other areas, in-creasing temperatures lead to changes in the vegetation cover and reduced water availability which affects the crop harvest and [[Definition and Dimensions of Food Security|food security]] negatively.
 <br/>
 = Historical development and approaches of watershed management =

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	[http://www.wbcsd.org/Pages/EDocument/EDocumentDetails.aspx?ID=15441&NoSearchContextKey=true WBCSD Water (2013)]: Sharing Water: Engaging business - why watershed approaches are important to business sustainability.		[http://www.wbcsd.org/Pages/EDocument/EDocumentDetails.aspx?ID=15441&NoSearchContextKey=true WBCSD Water (2013)]: Sharing Water: Engaging business - why watershed approaches are important to business sustainability.
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-Around 10% of the population worldwide lives in mountainous upstream watershed areas, and around 40% in lowland parts.<ref name="FAO unknown">FAO (unknown): Participatory Watershed Management. Fact sheet. http://www.fao.org/sd/ruralradio/common/ecg/24516_en_factsheet7_1.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref> Water is necessary by ecosystems, as well as for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes. In order to achieve a sustainable, integrated and just water management, a watershed is used as the decisive planning unit. A watershed can exist within the boundaries of a country, but can also be [[Transboundary water management|transboundary]]. UNEP defines watershed management and development as “the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of the natural (land, water, plants, and animals) and human habitat within a shared ecosystem (geological, hydrological-aquatic and ecological) located within a common drainage system”.<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org</ref> The biggest challenges for sustainable watershed management are to achieve justice between competing [[Users|users]] through participatory processes; maintain or improve ecosystem services; and secure socio-economic development to improve livelihoods.<ref name="IMWI 2005">IMWI / Sharma, R.B., Samra, J.S., Scott, C.A. et.al. (2005): Watershed Management Challenges: Improving Productivity, Resources and Livelihoods. International Water Management Institute. New Delhi, India. http://www.intranet.icrisat.org/gtaes/downloads/Publication%20CD%20Ver%204.0/ECD/ebooks/92-9090.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref>
+Around 10% of the population worldwide lives in mountainous upstream watershed areas, and around 40% in lowland parts.<ref name="FAO unknown">FAO (unknown): Participatory Watershed Management. Fact sheet. http://www.fao.org/sd/ruralradio/common/ecg/24516_en_factsheet7_1.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref> Water is necessary by ecosystems, as well as for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes. In order to achieve a sustainable, integrated and just water management, a watershed is used as the decisive planning unit. A watershed can exist within the boundaries of a country, but can also be [[Transboundary water management|transboundary]]. UNEP defines watershed management and development as “the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of the natural (land, water, plants, and animals) and human habitat within a shared ecosystem (geological, hydrological-aquatic and ecological) located within a common drainage system”.<ref name="UNEP">UNEP (2009): Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human well-being http://www.unep.org</ref> The biggest challenges for sustainable watershed management are to achieve justice between competing users through participatory processes; maintain or improve ecosystem services; and secure socio-economic development to improve livelihoods.<ref name="IMWI 2005">IMWI / Sharma, R.B., Samra, J.S., Scott, C.A. et.al. (2005): Watershed Management Challenges: Improving Productivity, Resources and Livelihoods. International Water Management Institute. New Delhi, India. http://www.intranet.icrisat.org/gtaes/downloads/Publication%20CD%20Ver%204.0/ECD/ebooks/92-9090.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref>
 = Background =
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 Further information on each instrument, as well as criteria for successful implementation and literature, can be found in FAO (2000).<ref name="FAO 2000">FAO / Kiersch, B. (2000): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y3618e/y3618e07.htm [Access 2012-12-03].</ref>
-The costs and benefits between upstream and downstream users have to be distributed; therefore, values should be analysed for suitable benefit-sharing mechanisms. These mech-anisms then have to be communicated to land users in order to create incentives for changing land uses.<ref name="Kiersch 2002">Kiersch., B. & Tognetti, S. (2002): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds: Results from the FAO electronic Workshop. Land Use and Water Resources Research 2 (2002) 1.1-1.6. http://www.luwrr.com/uploads/paper02-01.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref><br/>The importance of the participation of all stakeholders (i.e. farmers, land holders, local gov-ernment, line ministries and the business sector) in a watershed association is widely acknowledged. In addition, the development of water user associations for dealing with the concerns of the farmers is valuable. With regard to [[Transboundary water management|transboundary watersheds]] (see also [[Water_Governance|water governance]]), international linkages need to be identified and an integration of management approaches across scales employed, as well as a sharing of knowledge and experiences.<ref name="MRC 2011">MRC / Bach, H., Clausen, T. J., Trang, D. T. et.al (2011): From local watershed to inte-grated river basin management at national and transboundary levels. Mekong River Commission. Vientiane, Laos. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Publications/Reports/Watershed-Management-report2011.pdf [Access 2012-12-08]</ref>
+The costs and benefits between upstream and downstream users have to be distributed; therefore, values should be analysed for suitable benefit-sharing mechanisms. These mech-anisms then have to be communicated to land users in order to create incentives for changing land uses.<ref name="Kiersch 2002">Kiersch., B. & Tognetti, S. (2002): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds: Results from the FAO electronic Workshop. Land Use and Water Resources Research 2 (2002) 1.1-1.6. http://www.luwrr.com/uploads/paper02-01.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref><br/>The importance of the participation of all stakeholders (i.e. farmers, land holders, local gov-ernment, line ministries and the business sector) in a watershed association is widely acknowledged. In addition, the development of water user associations for dealing with the concerns of the farmers is valuable. With regard to [[Transboundary water management|transboundary watersheds]] (see also [[Water Governance|water governance]]), international linkages need to be identified and an integration of management approaches across scales employed, as well as a sharing of knowledge and experiences.<ref name="MRC 2011">MRC / Bach, H., Clausen, T. J., Trang, D. T. et.al (2011): From local watershed to inte-grated river basin management at national and transboundary levels. Mekong River Commission. Vientiane, Laos. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Publications/Reports/Watershed-Management-report2011.pdf [Access 2012-12-08]</ref>
 To ensure sustainable watershed management, a planning and implementation process as indicated in Figure 3 is recommended.

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 In general, changes through land use alterations in the upstream areas affect lowlands and pose a challenge to equitable water distribution between different users. For example, floods can have positive impacts on downstream agricultural land through depositing nutrient rich sediments. This is limited if upstream constructed reservoirs for irrigation results in sedimen-tation in this structures. In areas with large irrigation schemes upstream, reduced water quantities in rivers can have negative effects in the downstream area.<ref name="Thapa 2005">Thapa, G. R. (2005): Integrated Watershed Management: Basic concepts and. UNESCO – EOLSS sample chapters Human settlement development, Vol. II. http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C14/E1-18-04-05.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref> There-fore, conflicts can arise between different sectors and users, especially among farmers.<br/>Land use and water quantity and quality conditions in a watershed are affected by climate change and the increasing variability of extreme weather events. After or during extreme rainfall events, especially after a period of drought, eroded sediments and pollutants are transported downstream. In many mountain regions quicker melting glaciers and perennial snow fields alters downstream flows and reduces freshwater resources. In other areas, in-creasing temperatures lead to changes in the vegetation cover and reduced water availability which affects the crop harvest and [[Definition and Dimensions|food security]] negatively.
 = Historical development and approaches of watershed management =
@@ Line 61: / Line 62: @@
 Further information on each instrument, as well as criteria for successful implementation and literature, can be found in FAO (2000).<ref name="FAO 2000">FAO / Kiersch, B. (2000): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y3618e/y3618e07.htm [Access 2012-12-03].</ref>
-The costs and benefits between upstream and downstream users have to be distributed; therefore, values should be analysed for suitable benefit-sharing mechanisms. These mech-anisms then have to be communicated to land users in order to create incentives for changing land uses.<ref name="Kiersch 2002">Kiersch., B. & Tognetti, S. (2002): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds: Results from the FAO electronic Workshop. Land Use and Water Resources Research 2 (2002) 1.1-1.6. http://www.luwrr.com/uploads/paper02-01.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref><br/>The importance of the participation of all stakeholders (i.e. farmers, land holders, local gov-ernment, line ministries and the business sector) in a watershed association is widely acknowledged. In addition, the development of water user associations for dealing with the concerns of the farmers is valuable. With regard to [[Transboundary water management|transboundary watersheds]] (see also [[Water|water governance]]), international linkages need to be identified and an integration of management approaches across scales employed, as well as a sharing of knowledge and experiences.<ref name="MRC 2011">MRC / Bach, H., Clausen, T. J., Trang, D. T. et.al (2011): From local watershed to inte-grated river basin management at national and transboundary levels. Mekong River Commission. Vientiane, Laos. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Publications/Reports/Watershed-Management-report2011.pdf [Access 2012-12-08]</ref>
+The costs and benefits between upstream and downstream users have to be distributed; therefore, values should be analysed for suitable benefit-sharing mechanisms. These mech-anisms then have to be communicated to land users in order to create incentives for changing land uses.<ref name="Kiersch 2002">Kiersch., B. & Tognetti, S. (2002): Land-water linkages in rural watersheds: Results from the FAO electronic Workshop. Land Use and Water Resources Research 2 (2002) 1.1-1.6. http://www.luwrr.com/uploads/paper02-01.pdf [Access 2012-11-29].</ref><br/>The importance of the participation of all stakeholders (i.e. farmers, land holders, local gov-ernment, line ministries and the business sector) in a watershed association is widely acknowledged. In addition, the development of water user associations for dealing with the concerns of the farmers is valuable. With regard to [[Transboundary water management|transboundary watersheds]] (see also [[Water_Governance|water governance]]), international linkages need to be identified and an integration of management approaches across scales employed, as well as a sharing of knowledge and experiences.<ref name="MRC 2011">MRC / Bach, H., Clausen, T. J., Trang, D. T. et.al (2011): From local watershed to inte-grated river basin management at national and transboundary levels. Mekong River Commission. Vientiane, Laos. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Publications/Reports/Watershed-Management-report2011.pdf [Access 2012-12-08]</ref>
 To ensure sustainable watershed management, a planning and implementation process as indicated in Figure 3 is recommended.
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 = Examples from the field =
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 <references />
+<br/>
 = Additional Information =

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	The Worldbank (2000): Watershed Management: A Review of the World Bank Portfolio (1990-1999).		The Worldbank (2000): Watershed Management: A Review of the World Bank Portfolio (1990-1999).
		+
		+	[http://www.wbcsd.org/Pages/EDocument/EDocumentDetails.aspx?ID=15441&NoSearchContextKey=true WBCSD Water (2013)]: Sharing Water: Engaging business - why watershed approaches are important to business sustainability.

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 <references />
 = Additional Information =
-Agenda 21 – watershed management: [http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_13.shtml http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_13.shtml] [Access 2012-11-29]
+Agenda 21 – watershed management: [http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/a21-13.htm http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/a21-13.htm] [Access 2012-11-29]
 Danida (2000): Watershed Development: Regenerative Packages for Participatory Water-shed Development, proceedings of the Danish International Development Assistance’s Third International Workshop on Watershed Development, 26 October-4 November 1999, Kathmandu, Nepal.

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 In general, changes through land use alterations in the upstream areas affect lowlands and pose a challenge to equitable water distribution between different users. For example, floods can have positive impacts on downstream agricultural land through depositing nutrient rich sediments. This is limited if upstream constructed reservoirs for irrigation results in sedimen-tation in this structures. In areas with large irrigation schemes upstream, reduced water quantities in rivers can have negative effects in the downstream area.<ref name="Thapa 2005">Thapa, G. R. (2005): Integrated Watershed Management: Basic concepts and. UNESCO – EOLSS sample chapters Human settlement development, Vol. II. http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C14/E1-18-04-05.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref> There-fore, conflicts can arise between different sectors and users, especially among farmers.<br/>Land use and water quantity and quality conditions in a watershed are affected by climate change and the increasing variability of extreme weather events. After or during extreme rainfall events, especially after a period of drought, eroded sediments and pollutants are transported downstream. In many mountain regions quicker melting glaciers and perennial snow fields alters downstream flows and reduces freshwater resources. In other areas, in-creasing temperatures lead to changes in the vegetation cover and reduced water availability which affects the crop harvest and [[Definition and Dimensions|food security]] negatively.
 = Historical development and approaches of watershed management =
-Watershed management is part of Integrated Water Resources Management ([[IWRM|IWRM]]). It was introduced in development policies after the Second World War by the UN and the Bretton Wood institutions. “Promoting integrated watershed management” was included as one focus area in chapter 13 of the Agenda 21 on sustainable mountain development ([http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_13.shtml http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_13.shtml]). In the past, the focus was mainly on forestry and later land resources management, and engineering solutions. Beginning in the 1990s, participatory and integrated management concepts were introduced, and farming systems accentuated. Natural resource management as part of local socio-economic development processes was highlighted.<ref name="FAO 2006">FAO (2006): The new generation of watershed management projects. FAO Forestry Pa-per 150. Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0644e/a0644e00.htm [Access 2012-12-01].</ref><ref name="World Bank 2008">The Worldbank / Darghouth, S., Ward, C., Gambarell, G. et.al (2008): Watershed Man-agement Approaches, Policies and Operations: Lessons for Scaling Up. Water Sector Board Discussion Paper Series, Paper No.11. Washington D.C., USA. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/TURKEYEXTN/Resources/361711-1216301653427/5218036-1267432900822/WatershedExperience-en.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref>
+Watershed management is part of Integrated Water Resources Management ([[IWRM|IWRM]]). It was introduced in development policies after the Second World War by the UN and the Bretton Wood institutions. “Promoting integrated watershed management” was included as one focus area in chapter 13 of the Agenda 21 on sustainable mountain development ([http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/a21-13.htm http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/a21-13.htm]). In the past, the focus was mainly on forestry and later land resources management, and engineering solutions. Beginning in the 1990s, participatory and integrated management concepts were introduced, and farming systems accentuated. Natural resource management as part of local socio-economic development processes was highlighted.<ref name="FAO 2006">FAO (2006): The new generation of watershed management projects. FAO Forestry Pa-per 150. Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0644e/a0644e00.htm [Access 2012-12-01].</ref><ref name="World Bank 2008">The Worldbank / Darghouth, S., Ward, C., Gambarell, G. et.al (2008): Watershed Man-agement Approaches, Policies and Operations: Lessons for Scaling Up. Water Sector Board Discussion Paper Series, Paper No.11. Washington D.C., USA. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/TURKEYEXTN/Resources/361711-1216301653427/5218036-1267432900822/WatershedExperience-en.pdf [Access 2012-12-01].</ref>
 In 2003, the FAO composed the Sassari Declaration on Integrated Watershed Management. It emphasises the integrated management of water, vegetation soils and sediments for the benefit of the natural resources, environmental services, uses and users. Furthermore, it points at the importance of a good understanding of linkages between upland and lowland areas and their hydrological and land use systems, as well as socio-economic and cultural aspects. Key elements for the FAO, amongst others, are to have an approach including all sectors and stakeholders, and the identification of compensation mechanisms.<ref name="FAO 2003">FAO (2003): Sassari Declaration on Integrated Watershed Management: Water for the Future. http://www.fao.org/forestry/11707-0909805923c3bea0dbbdab292a68deec2.pdffckLR[Access 2012-11-10].</ref><br/>The German International Development Cooperation (GIZ) especially stresses the importance of creating “new forms of cooperation that ensure sustainable ecosystem use, help prevent water conflicts and promote cooperation between the various user groups”. For GIZ, watershed management is “a process including all institutions and stakeholders (…) for a socially and ecologically sound, cost-effective and sustainable ecosystem management”.<ref name="GIZ 2011">GIZ (2011): Integrated Watershed Management (IWSM). Advisory Service. Eschborn. http://www.giz.de/en/downloads/gtz2010-en-integrated-watershed-management.pdf [Ac-cess 2012-10-15].</ref>
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 = Examples from the field =