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| | = Background<br/> = | | = Background<br/> = |
| − | ''Prosopis ''is a genus belonging to the botanical family of ''Fabaceae'', capable to bind atmospheric nitrogen and hence to contribute to soil fertility improvement. The genus comprises 44 species “of which 40 are native to the Americas” <ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. In Africa there are only two native ''Prosopis'' species: ''P. africana'' and ''P. farcta''.<ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. Most of ''Prosopis'' species, particularly ''P. juliflora'' and ''P. pallida'' (which are of concern in this regard) are fast-growing, very drought resistant and can stand saline soils easily. Due to their high coppicing ability they out-compete native species. Furthermore, they are equipped with several physical and chemical defence mechanisms (thorns, venom etc.) which make them very difficult to manage and unpalatable for animals. They are deep-rooting up to about 20 m and thus can reach water table <ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. Some ''Prosopis'' species are often mentioned as the strongest invaders: “[…] in particular ''P. juliflora'', ''P.glandulosa'',''P. pallida'',''P. chilensis'', ''P. flexuosa ''and''P. ruscifolia'' invade valuable farm- and rangeland and sometimes grow into impenetrable thickets, causing enormous ecological and economic damage as a result of competition with the native vegetation and with agricultural crops.” <ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref> It is also assumed that similar species, in particular ''P. juliflora'' and ''P. pallida'', form hybrids which make the identification even more difficult.<br/> | + | ''Prosopis ''is a genus belonging to the botanical family of ''Fabaceae'', capable to bind atmospheric nitrogen and hence to contribute to soil fertility improvement. The genus comprises 44 species “of which 40 are native to the Americas” <ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. In Africa there are only two native ''Prosopis'' species: ''P. africana'' and ''P. farcta''.<ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. Most of ''Prosopis'' species, particularly ''P. juliflora'' and ''P. pallida'' (which are of concern in this regard) are fast-growing, very drought resistant and can stand saline soils easily. Due to their high coppicing ability they out-compete native species. Furthermore, they are equipped with several physical and chemical defence mechanisms (thorns, venom etc.) which make them very difficult to manage and unpalatable for animals. They are deep-rooting up to about 20 m and thus can reach water table <ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. Some ''Prosopis'' species are often mentioned as the strongest invaders: “[…] in particular ''P. juliflora'', ''P.glandulosa'',''P. pallida'',''P. chilensis'', ''P. flexuosa ''and''P. ruscifolia'' invade valuable farm- and rangeland and sometimes grow into impenetrable thickets, causing enormous ecological and economic damage as a result of competition with the native vegetation and with agricultural crops.” <ref name="Geesing et al. (n. d.)">D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] </ref>. It is also assumed that similar species, in particular ''P. juliflora'' and ''P. pallida'', form hybrids which make the identification even more difficult.<br/> |
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| − | Encroachment of [[Invasive Alien Species|Invasive Alien Species (IAS)]] is a globally common phenomenon and often has detrimental effects on rural households in developing countries. Ethiopia in particular is affected by invasion of several species of ''Prosopis spp.''– predominantly ''P. juliflora'' – that have been growing out of control for already more than a decade <ref name="HDRA(2005)">HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf] </ref>. The ecological consequences of this woody species encroachment have been devastating since rangeland areas are degraded and forage grass productivity has declined drastically as a result <ref name="Angassa et al.(2008)">Angassa, Ayana, Oba, Gufu (2008): Effects of management and time on mechanisms of bush encroachment in southern Ethiopia. In: African Journal of Ecology, Vol. 46, Iss. 2, pp. 186-196. URL: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x] and Coppock, David Layne, ed. ''The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of pastoral research, development, and change, 1980-91''. Vol. 5.ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD), 1994.</div><div id="edn4"> </ref>. Besides impacts on the social fabric and rural livelihood systems, consequences also entail land degradation, which strongly influences the regional and national economic performance. So far, the economics of land degradation have mainly focused on general aspects such as soil erosion, salinisation or land use changes <ref name="Gerber (2012)">Gerber, Nicolas (2012): The Economics of Land Degradation and the Cost of Action versus Inaction, ZEF/ IFPRI </ref>.<br/> | + | Encroachment of [[Invasive Alien Species|Invasive Alien Species (IAS)]] is a globally common phenomenon and often has detrimental effects on rural households in developing countries. Ethiopia in particular is affected by invasion of several species of ''Prosopis spp.''– predominantly ''P. juliflora'' – that have been growing out of control for already more than a decade <ref name="HDRA(2005)">HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf] </ref>. The ecological consequences of this woody species encroachment have been devastating since rangeland areas are degraded and forage grass productivity has declined drastically as a result <ref name="Angassa et al.(2008)">Angassa, Ayana, Oba, Gufu (2008): Effects of management and time on mechanisms of bush encroachment in southern Ethiopia. In: African Journal of Ecology, Vol. 46, Iss. 2, pp. 186-196. URL: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x] and Coppock, David Layne, ed. ''The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of pastoral research, development, and change, 1980-91''. Vol. 5.ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD), 1994</ref>. Besides impacts on the social fabric and rural livelihood systems, consequences also entail land degradation, which strongly influences the regional and national economic performance. So far, the economics of land degradation have mainly focused on general aspects such as soil erosion, salinisation or land use changes <ref name="Gerber (2012)">Gerber, Nicolas (2012): The Economics of Land Degradation and the Cost of Action versus Inaction, ZEF/ IFPRI </ref>.<br/> |
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| | = ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia<br/> = | | = ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia<br/> = |
| | The spatial extension of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia is difficult to assess since it is expanding rapidly, up to 18% per year <ref name="Felker (2008)">Peter Felker (2008): personal communication cited in: Fiona Flintan (2008): Prosopis control and/ or utilization, URL: [http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis|http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis] </ref>. According to estimates of Ryan (2011), one million hectares (ha) are already covered by ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia <ref name="Ryan(2011)">Ryan, F. (2011): US Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip to Ethiopia: Invasive Species Management: US Forest Service, cited in: Yibekal Abebe Tessema: Ecological and Economic Dimensions of the Paradoxical Invasive Species- Prosopis juliflora and Policy Challenges in Ethiopia. In: Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No.8, 2012 </ref>, of which about 700,000 ha are located in the Afar Region. ''Prosopis'' rapidly spreads across both pastoral and agricultural lands leading to severe losses in ecological functions and, thus, to degradation. Other countries <ref name="Pasiecznik et al. (2001)">Pasiecznik, N.M. et al. (2001): The ''Prosopis juliflora''- ''Prosopis pallida ''Complex: A Monograph, HDRA Coventry UK </ref> such as South Africa, Niger, Yemen, Namibia and India are also threatened by environmental degradation through ''Prosopis'' as are surrounding areas in Eritrea, Somalia and Kenya.<br/> | | The spatial extension of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia is difficult to assess since it is expanding rapidly, up to 18% per year <ref name="Felker (2008)">Peter Felker (2008): personal communication cited in: Fiona Flintan (2008): Prosopis control and/ or utilization, URL: [http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis|http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis] </ref>. According to estimates of Ryan (2011), one million hectares (ha) are already covered by ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia <ref name="Ryan(2011)">Ryan, F. (2011): US Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip to Ethiopia: Invasive Species Management: US Forest Service, cited in: Yibekal Abebe Tessema: Ecological and Economic Dimensions of the Paradoxical Invasive Species- Prosopis juliflora and Policy Challenges in Ethiopia. In: Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No.8, 2012 </ref>, of which about 700,000 ha are located in the Afar Region. ''Prosopis'' rapidly spreads across both pastoral and agricultural lands leading to severe losses in ecological functions and, thus, to degradation. Other countries <ref name="Pasiecznik et al. (2001)">Pasiecznik, N.M. et al. (2001): The ''Prosopis juliflora''- ''Prosopis pallida ''Complex: A Monograph, HDRA Coventry UK </ref> such as South Africa, Niger, Yemen, Namibia and India are also threatened by environmental degradation through ''Prosopis'' as are surrounding areas in Eritrea, Somalia and Kenya.<br/> |
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| | The region is featured by extensive areas of bush lands and grassland used as pasture by local pastoral transhumant groups. However, almost 50% of the area is covered by sand and rocks while only 7% is estimated to be cultivable. Of utmost importance for the local pastoral population is the Awash River, which traverses large parts of the region and serves as a vital key resource. The areas where ''Prosopis'' has spread most rapidly are the seasonally inundated floodplains along the Awash River, in which rich pastures had previously offered key grazing resources during dry seasons and drought. Almost 90% of the Afar population are pastoralists or agro-pastoralists and their livelihood mainly depends on livestock production using rangeland <ref name="Mengistu (2006)">Mengistu, Alemayehu (2006): Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia, FAO</ref>. The Awash River also offers irrigation potential for agriculture. An increasing number of pastoralists have started practicing small-scale farming along the Awash River to diversify their livelihood systems, alongside a growing number of large-scale farms cultivating cotton and sugarcane. Both farm types are also negatively affected by the invasion of ''Prosopis''.<br/> | | The region is featured by extensive areas of bush lands and grassland used as pasture by local pastoral transhumant groups. However, almost 50% of the area is covered by sand and rocks while only 7% is estimated to be cultivable. Of utmost importance for the local pastoral population is the Awash River, which traverses large parts of the region and serves as a vital key resource. The areas where ''Prosopis'' has spread most rapidly are the seasonally inundated floodplains along the Awash River, in which rich pastures had previously offered key grazing resources during dry seasons and drought. Almost 90% of the Afar population are pastoralists or agro-pastoralists and their livelihood mainly depends on livestock production using rangeland <ref name="Mengistu (2006)">Mengistu, Alemayehu (2006): Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia, FAO</ref>. The Awash River also offers irrigation potential for agriculture. An increasing number of pastoralists have started practicing small-scale farming along the Awash River to diversify their livelihood systems, alongside a growing number of large-scale farms cultivating cotton and sugarcane. Both farm types are also negatively affected by the invasion of ''Prosopis''.<br/> |
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| − | Furthermore, Afar Region encompasses biodiversity hotspots <ref name="Anonymous (n .d.)">Mengistu, Alemayehu (n. d.): A Glimpse at Biodiversity Hotspots of Ethiopia [http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf] </ref> and several endemic species[[#_edn12|[12]]] and exhibits a complex diversity of ethnic groups, each having their own peculiar societal features. Large areas of Afar Region have already been invaded (Fig.2) over the past twenty years and a further spread must be expected.<br/> | + | Furthermore, Afar Region encompasses biodiversity hotspots <ref name="Anonymous (n .d.)">Anonymous(n. d.): A Glimpse at Biodiversity Hotspots of Ethiopia [http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf] </ref> and several endemic species <ref name="Berhanu and Tesfaye (2006)">Abiyot Berhanu and Getachew Tesfaye (2006): “The ''Prosopis'' Dilemma, Impacts on Drylandbiodiversity and some Controlling Methods“,Journal of the Drylands 1(2): 158-164, 2006</ref> and exhibits a complex diversity of ethnic groups, each having their own peculiar societal features. Large areas of Afar Region have already been invaded (Fig.2) over the past twenty years and a further spread must be expected.<br/> |
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| − | ''Prosopis'' was introduced in the Afar Region in the early 1980s by the Ministry of Agriculture[[#_edn14|[14]]]. Its original purpose was to combat desertification around the large state-owned irrigated farms along the Awash River.[[#_edn15|[15]]] It began to spread invasively during the 1990s. A consecutive land use and land cover mapping based on digital satellite image classification gives reason to assume that the spreading of ''Prosopis'' coincides with the collapse of water control and irrigation systems after the overthrow of the socialist Derg regime.[[#_edn16|[16]]] Water, and especially the availability of subsurface ground water, is obviously one of the drivers of the invasion of ''Prosopis''.<br/> | + | ''Prosopis'' was introduced in the Afar Region in the early 1980s by the Ministry of Agriculture <ref name="HDRA (2005)">HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf]</ref>. Its original purpose was to combat desertification around the large state-owned irrigated farms along the Awash River <ref name="Rettberger and Müller-Mahn (2012)">Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds.): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316</ref>. It began to spread invasively during the 1990s. A consecutive land use and land cover mapping based on digital satellite image classification gives reason to assume that the spreading of ''Prosopis'' coincides with the collapse of water control and irrigation systems after the overthrow of the socialist Derg regime <ref name="Böhnert (2013)">Böhnert, Elke (2013): German Ethiopian Financial Cooperation. Territorial approach to adjusting to climate change in Eastern Ethiopia 30932. Measures to increase pastoralists’ drought resilience in the Afar National Regional State (unpublished)</ref>. Water, and especially the availability of subsurface ground water, is obviously one of the drivers of the invasion of ''Prosopis''.<br/> |
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| | Several actions and approaches for integrated management of ''Prosopis'' and various control methods were tested and implemented in Afar Region over the last years by public institutions as well as NGOs and donor organisations, with generally poor results. So far, comprehensive knowledge on and awareness of the diverse impacts ''Prosopis'' has on land degradation, losses in ecosystem services as well as a comprehensive policy framework and policy action are missing in Afar Region. The problem has not been addressed appropriately yet, even though today ''Prosopis'' invasion seriously challenges pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and irrigated agriculture implying social, economic and environmental threats. The major impact in economic terms has been a massive impoverishment, especially among cattle pastoralists whose animals depend on the rich floodplain grasses along the Awash River that have almost completely been replaced by ''Prosopis''.<br/> | | Several actions and approaches for integrated management of ''Prosopis'' and various control methods were tested and implemented in Afar Region over the last years by public institutions as well as NGOs and donor organisations, with generally poor results. So far, comprehensive knowledge on and awareness of the diverse impacts ''Prosopis'' has on land degradation, losses in ecosystem services as well as a comprehensive policy framework and policy action are missing in Afar Region. The problem has not been addressed appropriately yet, even though today ''Prosopis'' invasion seriously challenges pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and irrigated agriculture implying social, economic and environmental threats. The major impact in economic terms has been a massive impoverishment, especially among cattle pastoralists whose animals depend on the rich floodplain grasses along the Awash River that have almost completely been replaced by ''Prosopis''.<br/> |
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| − | The spread of ''Prosopis'' also influences social and environmental aspects beyond invaded areas. Pastoralists who lost their grazing land to ''Prosopis'' have to search for new livelihood opportunities or move to new grazing areas, which raises the risk of land conflicts with other pastoralists and farmers. Furthermore, increasing livestock densities on the remaining pasture land trigger continuing land degradation. Under these conditions, the vulnerability of pastoralists has increased and drought induced acute food insecurity has been replaced by chronic food insecurity for large parts of the pastoral population[[#_edn17|[17]]]. Concerning ecological aspects, ''Prosopis ''out-competes important forage species and thus reduces biodiversity that in turn has an impact on long-term forage availability and, hence, on the quality of livestock production.<br/> | + | The spread of ''Prosopis'' also influences social and environmental aspects beyond invaded areas. Pastoralists who lost their grazing land to ''Prosopis'' have to search for new livelihood opportunities or move to new grazing areas, which raises the risk of land conflicts with other pastoralists and farmers. Furthermore, increasing livestock densities on the remaining pasture land trigger continuing land degradation. Under these conditions, the vulnerability of pastoralists has increased and drought induced acute food insecurity has been replaced by chronic food insecurity for large parts of the pastoral population <ref name="Müller-Mahn et al. (2010)">Müller-Mahn, D., Rettberg, S., Getachew, G. (2010): Pathways and dead ends of pastoral development among the Afar Karrayu in Ethiopia. In: European Journal for Development Research 22 (5), pp. 660-677</ref>. Concerning ecological aspects, ''Prosopis ''out-competes important forage species and thus reduces biodiversity that in turn has an impact on long-term forage availability and, hence, on the quality of livestock production.<br/> |
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| | The reduction in herd sizes has repercussions on the livestock market in Ethiopia. Several factors have determined the low productivity of the livestock market in Ethiopia: civil war and violent conflict with other ethnic groups, disruption of established marketing and export systems by border conflicts with Eritrea, expansion of irrigated agriculture and large farms, poor access to the credit market, insecurity of land tenure, a land tenure system which does not allow any control in community land and recently the encroachment of invasive species, predominantly ''Prosopis'', which are deteriorating the quality and availability of pasture land considerably. Despite sophisticated traditional pasture management systems (splitting herds, migration, sharing resources etc.) the mobile herders are not able to control the invasion to rehabilitate and reuse their traditional grazing land. The market for livestock products and especially meat is growing in the country, especially in urban areas, and Ethiopia aims at increasing its livestock production to supply these markets. It is assumed that in the past, before the invasion of ''Prosopis'', pastoralists in the area could keep larger stocks, increasing both their income and resilience of their livelihood system.<br/> | | The reduction in herd sizes has repercussions on the livestock market in Ethiopia. Several factors have determined the low productivity of the livestock market in Ethiopia: civil war and violent conflict with other ethnic groups, disruption of established marketing and export systems by border conflicts with Eritrea, expansion of irrigated agriculture and large farms, poor access to the credit market, insecurity of land tenure, a land tenure system which does not allow any control in community land and recently the encroachment of invasive species, predominantly ''Prosopis'', which are deteriorating the quality and availability of pasture land considerably. Despite sophisticated traditional pasture management systems (splitting herds, migration, sharing resources etc.) the mobile herders are not able to control the invasion to rehabilitate and reuse their traditional grazing land. The market for livestock products and especially meat is growing in the country, especially in urban areas, and Ethiopia aims at increasing its livestock production to supply these markets. It is assumed that in the past, before the invasion of ''Prosopis'', pastoralists in the area could keep larger stocks, increasing both their income and resilience of their livelihood system.<br/> |
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| | Table 1 shows in a comprised manner some results of research that has been carried out on the issue of ''Prosopis ''tackling the practical impact management.<br/> | | Table 1 shows in a comprised manner some results of research that has been carried out on the issue of ''Prosopis ''tackling the practical impact management.<br/> |
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| | <references /> | | <references /> |
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| − | Mengistu, Alemayehu (2006): Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia, FAO.</div><div id="edn11">[[#_ednref11|[11]]] [http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf]</div><div id="edn12">[[#_ednref12|[12]]]Abiyot Berhanu and Getachew Tesfaye (2006): “THE ''PROSOPIS ''DILEMMA, IMPACTS ON DRYLANDBIODIVERSITY AND SOME CONTROLLING METHODS“,JOURNAL OF THE DRYLANDS 1(2): 158-164, 2006<br/></div><div id="edn13">[[#_ednref13|[13]]] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds.): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.<br/></div><div id="edn14">[[#_ednref14|[14]]] HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf]</div><div id="edn15">[[#_ednref15|[15]]] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds..): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.</div><div id="edn16">[[#_ednref16|[16]]] Böhnert, Elke (2013): German Ethiopian Financial Cooperation. Territorial approach to adjusting to climate change in Eastern Ethiopia 30932. Measures to increase pastoralists’ drought resilience in the Afar National Regional State (unpublished)</div><div id="edn17">[[#_ednref17|[17]]] Müller-Mahn, D., Rettberg, S., Getachew, G. (2010): Pathways and dead ends of pastoral development among the Afar Karrayu in Ethiopia. In: European Journal for Development Research 22 (5), pp. 660-677.<br/></div></div>
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| − | = Furthr Reading<br/> =
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| − | [[The human dimensions of invasive|Binggelli, P. (2001), The human dimensions of invasive woody plants]]
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| − | [[The Ecological and Socio-economic Role of Prosopis juliflora in Eritrea|Bokrezion, H. (2008), The Ecological and Socio-economic Role of Prosopis juliflora in Eritrea]]
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| − | [[Ethiopia-National Plan for Prosopis-3 February 2002|Felker, P. (2002), Ethiopia-National Plan for Prosopis]]
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| − | [[Management, Use and Control of Prosopis in Yemen|Felker, P. (2003), Management, Use and Control of Prosopis in Yemen]]<br/> | + | = Further Reading<br/> = |
| − | | + | [[The human dimensions of invasive|Binggelli, P. (2001), The human dimensions of invasive woody plants]]<br/>[[The Ecological and Socio-economic Role of Prosopis juliflora in Eritrea|Bokrezion, H. (2008), The Ecological and Socio-economic Role of Prosopis juliflora in Eritrea]]<br/>[[Ethiopia-National Plan for Prosopis-3 February 2002|Felker, P. (2002), Ethiopia-National Plan for Prosopis]]<br/>[[Management, Use and Control of Prosopis in Yemen|Felker, P. (2003), Management, Use and Control of Prosopis in Yemen]]<br/> |
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| − | [[[Regional_Conference_on_Managing_Prosopis_Juliflora_for_better_(agro-)pastoral_Livelihoods_in_the_Horn_of_Africa|[1]]]]
| + | [[Regional Conference on Managing Prosopis Juliflora for better (agro-)pastoral Livelihoods in the Horn of Africa|<span dir="auto">Regional Conference on Managing Prosopis Juliflora for better (agro-)pastoral Livelihoods in the Horn of Africa]] |
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| | [http://thewaterchannel.tv/media-gallery/5870-prosopis-juliflora-in-afar-ethiopia-english http://thewaterchannel.tv/media-gallery/5870-prosopis-juliflora-in-afar-ethiopia-english] | | [http://thewaterchannel.tv/media-gallery/5870-prosopis-juliflora-in-afar-ethiopia-english http://thewaterchannel.tv/media-gallery/5870-prosopis-juliflora-in-afar-ethiopia-english] |
The Afar Region, along the Awash River in north-eastern Ethiopia covers an area of 108,860 km², hosting a population of approximately 1.4 million people with around 87% living in rural areas, mostly depending on livestock production for multiple purposes such as food consumption, income-generation, transport and asset reserves [8].
The region is featured by extensive areas of bush lands and grassland used as pasture by local pastoral transhumant groups. However, almost 50% of the area is covered by sand and rocks while only 7% is estimated to be cultivable. Of utmost importance for the local pastoral population is the Awash River, which traverses large parts of the region and serves as a vital key resource. The areas where Prosopis has spread most rapidly are the seasonally inundated floodplains along the Awash River, in which rich pastures had previously offered key grazing resources during dry seasons and drought. Almost 90% of the Afar population are pastoralists or agro-pastoralists and their livelihood mainly depends on livestock production using rangeland [9]. The Awash River also offers irrigation potential for agriculture. An increasing number of pastoralists have started practicing small-scale farming along the Awash River to diversify their livelihood systems, alongside a growing number of large-scale farms cultivating cotton and sugarcane. Both farm types are also negatively affected by the invasion of Prosopis.
The reduction in herd sizes has repercussions on the livestock market in Ethiopia. Several factors have determined the low productivity of the livestock market in Ethiopia: civil war and violent conflict with other ethnic groups, disruption of established marketing and export systems by border conflicts with Eritrea, expansion of irrigated agriculture and large farms, poor access to the credit market, insecurity of land tenure, a land tenure system which does not allow any control in community land and recently the encroachment of invasive species, predominantly Prosopis, which are deteriorating the quality and availability of pasture land considerably. Despite sophisticated traditional pasture management systems (splitting herds, migration, sharing resources etc.) the mobile herders are not able to control the invasion to rehabilitate and reuse their traditional grazing land. The market for livestock products and especially meat is growing in the country, especially in urban areas, and Ethiopia aims at increasing its livestock production to supply these markets. It is assumed that in the past, before the invasion of Prosopis, pastoralists in the area could keep larger stocks, increasing both their income and resilience of their livelihood system.
Table 1 shows in a comprised manner some results of research that has been carried out on the issue of Prosopis tackling the practical impact management.
