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| | Encroachment of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) is a globally common phenomenon and often has detrimental effects on rural households in developing countries. Ethiopia in particular is affected by invasion of several species of ''Prosopis spp.''– predominantly ''P. juliflora'' – that have been growing out of control for already more than a decade[[#_edn2|[2]]]. The ecological consequences of this woody species encroachment have been devastating since rangeland areas are degraded and forage grass productivity has declined drastically as a result[[#_edn3|[3]]]. Besides impacts on the social fabric and rural livelihood systems, consequences also entail land degradation, which strongly influences the regional and national economic performance. So far, the economics of land degradation have mainly focused on general aspects such as soil erosion, salinisation or land use changes[[#_edn4|[4]]]. | | Encroachment of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) is a globally common phenomenon and often has detrimental effects on rural households in developing countries. Ethiopia in particular is affected by invasion of several species of ''Prosopis spp.''– predominantly ''P. juliflora'' – that have been growing out of control for already more than a decade[[#_edn2|[2]]]. The ecological consequences of this woody species encroachment have been devastating since rangeland areas are degraded and forage grass productivity has declined drastically as a result[[#_edn3|[3]]]. Besides impacts on the social fabric and rural livelihood systems, consequences also entail land degradation, which strongly influences the regional and national economic performance. So far, the economics of land degradation have mainly focused on general aspects such as soil erosion, salinisation or land use changes[[#_edn4|[4]]]. |
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| | == Prosopis in Ethiopia<br/> == | | == Prosopis in Ethiopia<br/> == |
| | The spatial extension of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia is difficult to assess since it is expanding rapidly, up to 18% per year[[#_edn5|[5]]]. According to estimates of Ryan (2011), one million hectares (ha) are already covered by ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia[[#_edn6|[6]]], of which about 700,000 ha are located in the Afar Region. ''Prosopis'' rapidly spreads across both pastoral and agricultural lands leading to severe losses in ecological functions and, thus, to degradation. Other countries[[#_edn7|[7]]] such as South Africa, Niger, Yemen, Namibia and India are also threatened by environmental degradation through ''Prosopis'' as are surrounding areas in Eritrea, Somalia and Kenya. | | The spatial extension of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia is difficult to assess since it is expanding rapidly, up to 18% per year[[#_edn5|[5]]]. According to estimates of Ryan (2011), one million hectares (ha) are already covered by ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia[[#_edn6|[6]]], of which about 700,000 ha are located in the Afar Region. ''Prosopis'' rapidly spreads across both pastoral and agricultural lands leading to severe losses in ecological functions and, thus, to degradation. Other countries[[#_edn7|[7]]] such as South Africa, Niger, Yemen, Namibia and India are also threatened by environmental degradation through ''Prosopis'' as are surrounding areas in Eritrea, Somalia and Kenya. |
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| − | A huge part of Ethiopia is potentially suitable for ''Prosopis ''(Fig 1).
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| − | <br/>Fig. 1: Sites providing natural conditions conducive for ''P. juliflora'' in Ethiopia[[#_edn8|[8]]]<br/>
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| | Furthermore, Afar Region encompasses biodiversity hotspots[[#_edn11|[11]]] and several endemic species[[#_edn12|[12]]] and exhibits a complex diversity of ethnic groups, each having their own peculiar societal features. Large areas of Afar Region have already been invaded (Fig.2) over the past twenty years and a further spread must be expected.<br/> | | Furthermore, Afar Region encompasses biodiversity hotspots[[#_edn11|[11]]] and several endemic species[[#_edn12|[12]]] and exhibits a complex diversity of ethnic groups, each having their own peculiar societal features. Large areas of Afar Region have already been invaded (Fig.2) over the past twenty years and a further spread must be expected.<br/> |
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| − | ====== Fig. 2: Expansion of ''Prosopis'' within Baadu area, Afar Region, from 1986 – 2007[[#_edn13|[13]]]<br/> ======
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| | ''Prosopis'' was introduced in the Afar Region in the early 1980s by the Ministry of Agriculture[[#_edn14|[14]]]. Its original purpose was to combat desertification around the large state-owned irrigated farms along the Awash River.[[#_edn15|[15]]] It began to spread invasively during the 1990s. A consecutive land use and land cover mapping based on digital satellite image classification gives reason to assume that the spreading of ''Prosopis'' coincides with the collapse of water control and irrigation systems after the overthrow of the socialist Derg regime.[[#_edn16|[16]]] Water, and especially the availability of subsurface ground water, is obviously one of the drivers of the invasion of ''Prosopis''.<br/> | | ''Prosopis'' was introduced in the Afar Region in the early 1980s by the Ministry of Agriculture[[#_edn14|[14]]]. Its original purpose was to combat desertification around the large state-owned irrigated farms along the Awash River.[[#_edn15|[15]]] It began to spread invasively during the 1990s. A consecutive land use and land cover mapping based on digital satellite image classification gives reason to assume that the spreading of ''Prosopis'' coincides with the collapse of water control and irrigation systems after the overthrow of the socialist Derg regime.[[#_edn16|[16]]] Water, and especially the availability of subsurface ground water, is obviously one of the drivers of the invasion of ''Prosopis''.<br/> |
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| | Actions and approaches to manage ''Prosopis'' include for instance pod utilisation as animal feed, charcoal production and mechanical control methods. Other approaches were to calculate the Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for cotton production out of this species. Several approaches for integrated management and control mechanisms were also conducted in other countries by various institutions. | | Actions and approaches to manage ''Prosopis'' include for instance pod utilisation as animal feed, charcoal production and mechanical control methods. Other approaches were to calculate the Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for cotton production out of this species. Several approaches for integrated management and control mechanisms were also conducted in other countries by various institutions. |
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| − | Table 1 shows in a comprised manner some results of research that has been carried out on the issue of ''Prosopis ''tackling the practical impact management. | + | Table 1 shows in a comprised manner some results of research that has been carried out on the issue of ''Prosopis ''tackling the practical impact management.<br/> |
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| − | ====== Table 1: Practical approaches to manage ''Prosopis''<br/> ======
| + | ''Table 1: Practical approaches to manage Prosopis''<br/> |
| − | The reduction in herd sizes has repercussions on the livestock market in Ethiopia. Several factors have determined the low productivity of the livestock market in Ethiopia: civil war and violent conflict with other ethnic groups, disruption of established marketing and export systems by border conflicts with Eritrea, expansion of irrigated agriculture and large farms, poor access to the credit market, insecurity of land tenure, a land tenure system which does not allow any control in community land and recently the encroachment of invasive species, predominantly ''Prosopis'', which are deteriorating the quality and availability of pasture land considerably. Despite sophisticated traditional pasture management systems (splitting herds, migration, sharing resources etc.) the mobile herders are not able to control the invasion to rehabilitate and reuse their traditional grazing land. The market for livestock products and especially meat is growing in the country, especially in urban areas, and Ethiopia aims at increasing its livestock production to supply these markets. It is assumed that in the past, before the invasion of ''Prosopis'', pastoralists in the area could keep larger stocks, increasing both their income and resilience of their livelihood system. | + | |
| | + | The reduction in herd sizes has repercussions on the livestock market in Ethiopia. Several factors have determined the low productivity of the livestock market in Ethiopia: civil war and violent conflict with other ethnic groups, disruption of established marketing and export systems by border conflicts with Eritrea, expansion of irrigated agriculture and large farms, poor access to the credit market, insecurity of land tenure, a land tenure system which does not allow any control in community land and recently the encroachment of invasive species, predominantly ''Prosopis'', which are deteriorating the quality and availability of pasture land considerably. Despite sophisticated traditional pasture management systems (splitting herds, migration, sharing resources etc.) the mobile herders are not able to control the invasion to rehabilitate and reuse their traditional grazing land. The market for livestock products and especially meat is growing in the country, especially in urban areas, and Ethiopia aims at increasing its livestock production to supply these markets. It is assumed that in the past, before the invasion of ''Prosopis'', pastoralists in the area could keep larger stocks, increasing both their income and resilience of their livelihood system.<br/> |
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| | <div><br/><br/>----<div id="edn1"> | | <div><br/><br/>----<div id="edn1"> |
| | == '''References'''<br/> == | | == '''References'''<br/> == |
| − | [1] D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm] | + | [1] D. Geesing, M. Al-Khawlani, M. L. Abba (n. d.): Management of introduced ''Prosopis'' species: can economic exploitation control an invasive species?” URL: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e11.htm]<br/> |
| | | | |
| − | </div><div id="edn2">[[#_ednref2|[2]]]HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf]</div><div id="edn3">[[#_ednref3|[3]]]Wakie, Tewodros; Evangelista, Paul; Laituri, Melinda (2012): “Utilization assessment of Prosopis juliflora in Afar Region, Ethiopia. US Forest Service, USDA Office of International Programs, USAID Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative II Project (PLI II)[3]Angassa, Ayana, Oba, Gufu (2008): Effects of management and time on mechanisms of bush encroachment in southern Ethiopia. In: African Journal of Ecology, Vol. 46, Iss. 2, pp. 186-196. URL: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x] and Coppock, David Layne, ed. ''The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of pastoral research, development, and change, 1980-91''. Vol. 5.ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD), 1994.</div><div id="edn4">[[#_ednref4|[4]]] Gerber, Nicolas (2012): The Economics of Land Degradation and the Cost of Action versus Inaction, ZEF/ IFPRI.</div><div id="edn5">[[#_ednref5|[5]]] Peter Felker (2008): personal communication cited in: Fiona Flintan (2008): Prosopis control and/ or utilization, URL: [http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis][2].pdf</div><div id="edn6">[[#_ednref6|[6]]] Ryan, F. (2011): US Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip to Ethiopia: Invasive Species Management: US Forest Service, cited in: Yibekal Abebe Tessema: Ecological and Economic Dimensions of the Paradoxical Invasive Species- Prosopis juliflora and Policy Challenges in Ethiopia. In: Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No.8, 2012.</div><div id="edn7">[[#_ednref7|[7]]]Pasiecznik, N.M. et al. (2001): The ''Prosopis juliflora''- ''Prosopis pallida ''Complex: A Monograph, HDRA Coventry UK</div><div id="edn8">[[#_ednref8|[8]]] Wakie, Tewodros; Evangelista, Paul; Laituri, Melinda (2012): Utilization Assessment of ''Prosopis juliflora ''in Afar Region, Ethiopia</div><div id="edn9">[[#_ednref9|[9]]] Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2010)</div><div id="edn10">[[#_ednref10|[10]]] Mengistu, Alemayehu (2006): Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia, FAO.</div><div id="edn11">[[#_ednref11|[11]]] [http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf]</div><div id="edn12">[[#_ednref12|[12]]]Abiyot Berhanu and Getachew Tesfaye (2006): “THE ''PROSOPIS ''DILEMMA, IMPACTS ON DRYLANDBIODIVERSITY AND SOME CONTROLLING METHODS“,JOURNAL OF THE DRYLANDS 1(2): 158-164, 2006</div><div id="edn13">[[#_ednref13|[13]]] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds.): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.</div><div id="edn14">[[#_ednref14|[14]]] HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf]</div><div id="edn15">[[#_ednref15|[15]]] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds..): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.</div><div id="edn16">[[#_ednref16|[16]]] Böhnert, Elke (2013): German Ethiopian Financial Cooperation. Territorial approach to adjusting to climate change in Eastern Ethiopia 30932. Measures to increase pastoralists’ drought resilience in the Afar National Regional State (unpublished)</div><div id="edn17">[[#_ednref17|[17]]] Müller-Mahn, D., Rettberg, S., Getachew, G. (2010): Pathways and dead ends of pastoral development among the Afar Karrayu in Ethiopia. In: European Journal for Development Research 22 (5), pp. 660-677.<br/></div></div> | + | </div><div id="edn2">[[#_ednref2|[2]]]HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis ''in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf]</div><div id="edn3">[[#_ednref3|[3]]]Wakie, Tewodros; Evangelista, Paul; Laituri, Melinda (2012): “Utilization assessment of Prosopis juliflora in Afar Region, Ethiopia. US Forest Service, USDA Office of International Programs, USAID Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative II Project (PLI II)[3]Angassa, Ayana, Oba, Gufu (2008): Effects of management and time on mechanisms of bush encroachment in southern Ethiopia. In: African Journal of Ecology, Vol. 46, Iss. 2, pp. 186-196. URL: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x] and Coppock, David Layne, ed. ''The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of pastoral research, development, and change, 1980-91''. Vol. 5.ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD), 1994.</div><div id="edn4">[[#_ednref4|[4]]] Gerber, Nicolas (2012): The Economics of Land Degradation and the Cost of Action versus Inaction, ZEF/ IFPRI.</div><div id="edn5">[[#_ednref5|[5]]] Peter Felker (2008): personal communication cited in: Fiona Flintan (2008): Prosopis control and/ or utilization, URL: [http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/ELMT_Good_Practice_Bibliography_Prosopis][2].pdf</div><div id="edn6">[[#_ednref6|[6]]] Ryan, F. (2011): US Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip to Ethiopia: Invasive Species Management: US Forest Service, cited in: Yibekal Abebe Tessema: Ecological and Economic Dimensions of the Paradoxical Invasive Species- Prosopis juliflora and Policy Challenges in Ethiopia. In: Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No.8, 2012.</div><div id="edn7">[[#_ednref7|[7]]]Pasiecznik, N.M. et al. (2001): The ''Prosopis juliflora''- ''Prosopis pallida ''Complex: A Monograph, HDRA Coventry UK</div><div id="edn8">[[#_ednref8|[8]]] Wakie, Tewodros; Evangelista, Paul; Laituri, Melinda (2012): Utilization Assessment of ''Prosopis juliflora ''in Afar Region, Ethiopia</div><div id="edn9">[[#_ednref9|[9]]] Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2010)</div><div id="edn10">[[#_ednref10|[10]]] Mengistu, Alemayehu (2006): Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia, FAO.</div><div id="edn11">[[#_ednref11|[11]]] [http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf http://ewnhs.org.et/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/03/Biodiversity-Hotspots-of-Ethiopia.pdf]</div><div id="edn12">[[#_ednref12|[12]]]Abiyot Berhanu and Getachew Tesfaye (2006): “THE ''PROSOPIS ''DILEMMA, IMPACTS ON DRYLANDBIODIVERSITY AND SOME CONTROLLING METHODS“,JOURNAL OF THE DRYLANDS 1(2): 158-164, 2006 <br/></div><div id="edn13">[[#_ednref13|[13]]] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds.): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316. <br/></div><div id="edn14">[[#_ednref14|[14]]] HDRA (2005): Controlling the spread of ''Prosopis'' in Ethiopia by its utilization, URL: [http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/pdfs/international_programme/EthiopiaProsopisBrief.pdf]</div><div id="edn15">[[#_ednref15|[15]]] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds..): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.</div><div id="edn16">[[#_ednref16|[16]]] Böhnert, Elke (2013): German Ethiopian Financial Cooperation. Territorial approach to adjusting to climate change in Eastern Ethiopia 30932. Measures to increase pastoralists’ drought resilience in the Afar National Regional State (unpublished)</div><div id="edn17">[[#_ednref17|[17]]] Müller-Mahn, D., Rettberg, S., Getachew, G. (2010): Pathways and dead ends of pastoral development among the Afar Karrayu in Ethiopia. In: European Journal for Development Research 22 (5), pp. 660-677.<br/></div></div> |
Encroachment of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) is a globally common phenomenon and often has detrimental effects on rural households in developing countries. Ethiopia in particular is affected by invasion of several species of Prosopis spp.– predominantly P. juliflora – that have been growing out of control for already more than a decade[2]. The ecological consequences of this woody species encroachment have been devastating since rangeland areas are degraded and forage grass productivity has declined drastically as a result[3]. Besides impacts on the social fabric and rural livelihood systems, consequences also entail land degradation, which strongly influences the regional and national economic performance. So far, the economics of land degradation have mainly focused on general aspects such as soil erosion, salinisation or land use changes[4].
The Afar Region, along the Awash River in north-eastern Ethiopia covers an area of 108,860 km², hosting a population of approximately 1.4 million people with around 87% living in rural areas, mostly depending on livestock production for multiple purposes such as food consumption, income-generation, transport and asset reserves[9].
The region is featured by extensive areas of bush lands and grassland used as pasture by local pastoral transhumant groups. However, almost 50% of the area is covered by sand and rocks while only 7% is estimated to be cultivable. Of utmost importance for the local pastoral population is the Awash River, which traverses large parts of the region and serves as a vital key resource. The areas where Prosopis has spread most rapidly are the seasonally inundated floodplains along the Awash River, in which rich pastures had previously offered key grazing resources during dry seasons and drought. Almost 90% of the Afar population are pastoralists or agro-pastoralists and their livelihood mainly depends on livestock production using rangeland[10].The Awash River also offers irrigation potential for agriculture. An increasing number of pastoralists have started practicing small-scale farming along the Awash River to diversify their livelihood systems, alongside a growing number of large-scale farms cultivating cotton and sugarcane. Both farm types are also negatively affected by the invasion of Prosopis.
Table 1 shows in a comprised manner some results of research that has been carried out on the issue of Prosopis tackling the practical impact management.
The reduction in herd sizes has repercussions on the livestock market in Ethiopia. Several factors have determined the low productivity of the livestock market in Ethiopia: civil war and violent conflict with other ethnic groups, disruption of established marketing and export systems by border conflicts with Eritrea, expansion of irrigated agriculture and large farms, poor access to the credit market, insecurity of land tenure, a land tenure system which does not allow any control in community land and recently the encroachment of invasive species, predominantly Prosopis, which are deteriorating the quality and availability of pasture land considerably. Despite sophisticated traditional pasture management systems (splitting herds, migration, sharing resources etc.) the mobile herders are not able to control the invasion to rehabilitate and reuse their traditional grazing land. The market for livestock products and especially meat is growing in the country, especially in urban areas, and Ethiopia aims at increasing its livestock production to supply these markets. It is assumed that in the past, before the invasion of Prosopis, pastoralists in the area could keep larger stocks, increasing both their income and resilience of their livelihood system.
----
[3]Wakie, Tewodros; Evangelista, Paul; Laituri, Melinda (2012): “Utilization assessment of Prosopis juliflora in Afar Region, Ethiopia. US Forest Service, USDA Office of International Programs, USAID Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative II Project (PLI II)[3]Angassa, Ayana, Oba, Gufu (2008): Effects of management and time on mechanisms of bush encroachment in southern Ethiopia. In: African Journal of Ecology, Vol. 46, Iss. 2, pp. 186-196. URL:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00832.x and Coppock, David Layne, ed.
The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of pastoral research, development, and change, 1980-91. Vol. 5.ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD), 1994.
[4] Gerber, Nicolas (2012): The Economics of Land Degradation and the Cost of Action versus Inaction, ZEF/ IFPRI.
[6] Ryan, F. (2011): US Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip to Ethiopia: Invasive Species Management: US Forest Service, cited in: Yibekal Abebe Tessema: Ecological and Economic Dimensions of the Paradoxical Invasive Species- Prosopis juliflora and Policy Challenges in Ethiopia. In: Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol.3, No.8, 2012.
[7]Pasiecznik, N.M. et al. (2001): The
Prosopis juliflora-
Prosopis pallida Complex: A Monograph, HDRA Coventry UK
[8] Wakie, Tewodros; Evangelista, Paul; Laituri, Melinda (2012): Utilization Assessment of
Prosopis juliflora in Afar Region, Ethiopia
[9] Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2010)
[10] Mengistu, Alemayehu (2006): Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia, FAO.
[12]Abiyot Berhanu and Getachew Tesfaye (2006): “THE
PROSOPIS DILEMMA, IMPACTS ON DRYLANDBIODIVERSITY AND SOME CONTROLLING METHODS“,JOURNAL OF THE DRYLANDS 1(2): 158-164, 2006
[13] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds.): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.
[15] Rettberg, S. and Müller-Mahn, D. (2012): Human-environment interactions: The invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the dry lands of Northeast Ethiopia. In: Mol, L. and Sternberg, T. (Eds..): Changing deserts, Cambridge: Whitehorse Press: pp. 297-316.
[16] Böhnert, Elke (2013): German Ethiopian Financial Cooperation. Territorial approach to adjusting to climate change in Eastern Ethiopia 30932. Measures to increase pastoralists’ drought resilience in the Afar National Regional State (unpublished)
[17] Müller-Mahn, D., Rettberg, S., Getachew, G. (2010): Pathways and dead ends of pastoral development among the Afar Karrayu in Ethiopia. In: European Journal for Development Research 22 (5), pp. 660-677.
