“Ecosystem-based adaptation is the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change.” CBD 2009
Institutional Background
People worldwide depend on functioning ecosystems and the services they provide, such as soil fertility, clean water and food. This is especially true for poor people in developing countries, whose livelihoods are closely linked to natural resources. Climate change is one of the major causes of changes and deterioration in ecosystem services and its impact will most likely increase in the future (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). At the same time, functioning ecosystems help people to mitigate and more importantly to adapt to climate change – this is referred to as “ecosystem-based adaptation” (EbA). For instance, moors act as natural water storages, buffering increasing amounts of sudden rainfalls and mangroves act as natural barriers against storms and floods in coastal regions. In the UK, for example, more than 3.000 ha of farmland were converted back into moors and wetlands as a means of reducing flooding events.[1]
History of EbA
While humans have always benefited from nature and used ecosystem services to adapt to changing conditions, the concept of EbA is fairly new. The related “ecosystem based management” rose in relevance and gained support after the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). The idea of ecosystem-based adaptation originally arose in NGO and intergovernmental organization circles as “natural solutions to climate change”.
Rio
EbA has evolved into an important link between the three Rio Conventions: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Of the three Rio conventions, the CBD concerns itself the most with EbA. Parties to the CBD first committed to adaptation activities during COP 5 held in 2000. In particular, decision V/3 on marine and coastal biodiversity included adaptation to climate change within the framework of ‘priority areas for action on coral bleaching’. Another important milestone is the agreement on the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, which include the commitment to minimize “the multiple
anthropogenic pressures on vulnerable ecosystems” (target 10) and enhance “ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to climate change mitigation and adaptation” (target 15). The concept of EbA was first introduced into the UNFCCC in 2008 at the COP 14, with the issue being pushed by NGOs such as IUCN, TNC and others.
Cancun
Under the Cancun Adaptation Framework (2010) parties are encouraged to build the resilience of ecological systems, and slow onsetting events such as biodiversity loss, forest degradation and desertification are addressed. In this context, UNCCD has been engaged in enhancing the adaptive capacities of dryland populations to highly variable environmental conditions. After several years of discussion on definitions and content, current efforts strive to provide information on the implementation and financing of EbA measures and to fill knowledge gaps on the links between climate change and biodiversity (see recent decisions at CBD COP 10). A database on EbA approaches was mandated in the context of the UNFCCC Nairobi work programme in 2011. Under the same programme a workshop on ecosystem-based approaches for adaptation is to be held in 2013 in cooperation with the CBD and UNCCD, which will consider the synergies and lessons learned through the implementation of the three Rio Conventions.
EbA in international environmental negotiations
| 2000
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First commitment of CBD parties to adaptation activities during COP 5
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| 2005
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Millennium Ecosystem Assessment highlights importance of ecosystem based management
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| 2008/9
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Concept of EbA introduced to UNFCCC COP 14
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| 2009
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CBD COP 9, Bonn Germany: decision on integrating climate-change activities within the programmes of work of the Convention
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| 2010
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Agreement on Aichi Biodiversity Targets under CBD Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020
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EbA in GIZ
The most important donors for EbA-related activities in Germany are the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). Adaptation to climate change is part of the BMZportfolio on "climate policy and climate financing" and of growing interest due to its strong interlinkage with poverty alleviation. Funding is mostly provided by the Energy and Climate Fund (EKF) and the International Climate Change Initiative (IKI). Within IKI the BMUhas focused on the "green sector" since 2008 and EbA was consequently introduced to the funding portfolios as a priority area in 2010 and 2011 (see selection procedure). In GIZ the implementation of EbA varies from EbA as a cross-sectoral issue in mainstreaming adaptation to climate change into development to single EbA components, measures or specific EbA projects. Already several ongoing GIZ projects practice EbA measures in the context of natural resource management without labelling them as such (see section "Must haves and nice to haves").
In general, the EbA approach under the BMZis usually part of a broader adaptation strategy, visible in EbA components in mainstreamingor pilot projects. For example in the project "Capacity Building for Collaborative Management of Coastal Wetlands in Soc Trang" in Vietnam, EbA is mainstreamed within cross-sectoral cooperation while further local measures for wetlands conservation have been piloted. EbA projects commissioned by the BMU-IKI are generally projectswith a specific focus on EbA measures for climate change adaptation. Examples include projects such as "Coastal and marine biodiversity and capacity development for adaptation to climate change" in Costa Rica, "Biodiversity and climate change in the Atlantic Forest Biome in Brazil" and the currently planned "Flood and drought prevention through ecosystem-based adaptation in watersheds" project in Thailand.
Overview of EbA promoting institutions at international level
A large number of actors have taken up EbA in their measures and approaches and their numbers are steadily growing as awareness for EbA is increasing. These range from donors, international, national and regional NGOs, to implementing agencies, research institutions and global networks. Some actors have integrated EbA as a core activity. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN), Conservation International (CI), the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and the Nature Conservancy (TNC), for example, support various projects, research studies and mainstreaming of EbA. In response to the 2010 UNFCCC Cancun Agreements, a €10 million EbA flagship program in mountain ecosystems is being funded by the BMU (see above). The program was initiated as a joint effort with IUCN, UNEPand UNDPlooking at the impacts of climate change on Mountain Ecosystems in Nepal, Peru and Uganda and reducing their vulnerability by promoting EbA options.
The Ecosystems and Livelihoods Adaptation Network (ELAN) partnership (IUCN, WWF, CARE, IIED) is active in different areas: (1) informing policy (guidelines); (2) good practices; (3) capacity building (training materials and workshops); (4) strengthening science and knowledge; and (5) developing networks (see Social Networking Analysis Report 2011). Furthermore, a new ‘EBA Decision Support Framework’ is under development by UNEP and partners to assist national planners and decision makers select, design, implement and track EbA approaches as part of a wider adaptation strategy (Ecosystem based Adaptation Guidance). Universities and research institutes like CIFOR, the International Centre for Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education (CATIE) and UN World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) play an important role in the collection of evidence for EbA and filling knowledge gaps. Together with GIZ, for example, the Centre for Economics and Ecosystem Management at the Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development has developed the MARISCO methodology, which aims to assess the vulnerability of conservation sites. In coordination with the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO), GIZ published the study "Enhancing Adaptation of Forests and People in Africa". GIZ is also implementing EbA measures in cooperation with other international institutions such as "Strategies to Climate Change in Ecuador and Colombia" which is currently planned together with GIZ and IUCN. This is particularly applicable in the context of BMU-IKI projects.
Concept and Methodology
Conceptual Background
Ecosystem-based adaptation was defined as reducing the vulnerability to climate change of people through the sustainable use and conservation of ecosystems. In contrast to common natural resources and biodiversity management approaches, EbA purposefully assesses and selects measures in the context of an overall adaptation strategy. Although EbA measures use ecosystems to adapt to climate change, EbA still is an anthropogenic approachwhich particularly utilizes the ability of ecosystems to provide so called ecosystem services. They are also referred to as "Green Infrastructure" and can be seen as complementary to or substitutes of hard ("grey") infrastructural measures. For example, ecosystems are able to generate direct services such as food and building material, as well as indirect services like water purification or pollination. An overview of ecosystem services has been described by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, TEEB[2]. Apart from the intended outcomes, EbA measures tend to generate additional co-benefitssuch as carbon sequestration or biodiversity conservation, improved livelihood conditions and are generally considered no-regret options. To determine the specific requirements of maintaining or restoring an ecosystem and its services, EbA ideally draws on studies of climate change impacts or integrated climate analyses, which make use of climate scenarios and models.
Worldwide surveys have shown that restoration and conservation of ecosystems are generally very cost effectiveand highly profitable for maintaining ecosystem services. In comparison to the economic loss caused by loss of ecosystem services, the cost-benefit ratio of return of investment of appropriate restoration of ecosystems may be as high as 3 to 75, depending on the ecosystem context and the measures taken (UNEP 2010, 6). For example, a study in Vietnam shows that planting or maintaining mangrove forests to act as breakwaters for coastal protection is significantly cheaper (costing 1.1 million USD for 12,000 hectares) than mechanical repair of wave-induced dike erosion (costing 3.7 million USD annually) (IFRC: World Disasters Report 2002, 95). Climate change manifests itself in many different ways, such as changed patterns in temperature, precipitation or seasons. Adaptation approaches therefore have to regard the interdependencies between the climatic, ecological, social and economic dimensions. The proposed EbA approach, being based on elaborate cause-and-effect chains, as explained in the following section, enables the integration of adaptation benefits right from the planning phase.Thus it is drawing adaptive capacity from ecosystem and ecosystem services as well as strengthening their resilience against climate change. It is important to differentiate between utilizing ecosystem services for an adaptation purpose (EbA) and adapting ecosystems and ecosystem management to climate change in order to maintain their services (adaptation of ecosystems). The latter can be neccessary to sustain ecosystem services under the pressure of a changing climate.
Mainstreaming of EbA
The EbA mainstreaming cycleexplains how to integrate EbA into a project, policy or planning process. Following the different steps is closely related to the step-by-step approach of the tool "Climate Proofing for Development", pinpointing the particularities of EbA. Figure 2 visualizes the EbA mainstreaming cycle and gives some examples of tools, methods and approaches that can be utilized at each step (still work in progress). In the beginning, the exposure unit (region, sector, etc.) is screened byapplying a climate lens. To be able to sustain development efforts also in a context of climate change, adaptation needs are being assessed in step 2.The vulnerability assessmentconsiders exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. To identify interdependencies the DPSIR framework can be of help. EbA specifies are most prominent in the following steps:identification, selection and implementation of adaptation options.In step 4 decision makers will need arguments for choosing EbA measures. A proactive communication concept for EbA will be helpful in familiarizing stakeholders with potential advantages.
In step 3 EbA options should be considered next to other adaptation options.
Once EbA options have been chosen another question arises for the implementation (step 5). Only functioning ecosystems and their services can be used for the purpose of adaptation. However, they are often affected by anthropogenic pressures and there might be additional threats from climate change which are becoming more and more important. Thus, within an EbA approach, activities to adapt ecosystems to the effects of climate change can be of importance to secure the EbA options which have been chosen.
The evaluationconcludes the cycle. Monitoringinstead is a process coherent in every stage (see "Adaptation made to measure").
EbA in Practice
Must haves and nico to haves as mangrove forests, are heavily degraded through intensive monocultures, shrimp farming and unsustainable use of resources. The main objective of the project is to increase the protective function of the coastal forests through sustainable resource management and the promotion of biodiversity.
Moreover, additional complementary measures can be taken, so-called "nice to haves". These include:
Quantification of ecosystem services and cost-benefit analyses
Examples for opportunity costs(EbAinfrastructure measures): Mangrove reforestation and renaturation, for example, greatly reduces costs of dike construction and maintenance. </dir>
Sustainably functioning financing mechanisms, for instance Payments for Ecosystem Services(PES): landowners and users are offered monetary or non-monetary incentives in exchange for managing their land to provide certain quantity or quality of ecosystem services, e.g. payments of downstream river users to upstream users for proper waste management to reduce river pollution.
Bearing these aspects in mind when designing and implementing an EbA project is an important step towards avoiding pitfalls, such as the accidental introduction of non-native invasive species, inadequate integration of stakeholders and socio-economic issues or improper and partial restoration resulting in monocultures with little ecosystem service capacity.
EbA Measures
The implementation of EbA measures can be based on either a certain ecosystem service (e.g. water retention), part of an ecosystem or one or several ecosystems. Each sector, on the other hand, should regard its relevant ecosystem services and the underlying ecosystems in the water sector, for example groundwater recharge can be provided by a range of ecosystems such grassland, peatlands or rivers. All of those should be included in the process of selecting the best measures for adaptation. In general the type and state of the ecosystem as well as the intended outcome determine the measures to choose. The following table gives an overview of some ecosystems, a selection of services they provide, measures that can be applied and outcomes they may achieve.
Guidebooks and manuals for EbA measures
AAK Net (2013): Using Ecosystem-based Adaptation to tackle Food insecurity
Envirocare (2008): Training Manual on Good Forest Governance at Community Level
IUCN (2006): Coral Reef Resilience and Resistance to Bleaching.
USAID (2009): Adapting to coastal climate change – a guidebook for development planners.
Schuhmann, M., Joosten, H. (2008): Global Peatland Restoration Manual.
Trees for the Future (2008): Agroforestry Training Program.
GIZ (2012): Integrating Adaptation Measures into Forest Management (internal working document)
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